Title: Florists' review [microform] Identifier: 5205536_46_3 Year: 1912 (1910s) Authors: Subjects: Floriculture Publisher: Chicago : Florists' Pub. Co Contributing Library: University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Digitizing Sponsor: University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign View Book Page: Book Viewer About This Book: Catalog Entry View All Images: All Images From Book Click here to view book online to see this illustration in context in a browseable online version of this book. Text Appearing Before Image: I1M""'I"'"»"I t-.JJ'|W^";^^"Li^^H»IJ^MI«ii|Ugi ,JJllHI!^,J*S!W^t. PfMllipfl 11,^ The Florists^ Review AOODST 12, 1920 -C^ ■^J>-^- index lo Ihe /Advertiseinenls A. Abby Ave. Ghse 111 Adgute & Son 90 Advance Co 119 Alameda Gmhses... 93 Alexander Florist.. 94 Alien, J. K 99 Alpha Flo. Co 72-87 Alpha Florist 96 American Bulb Bo.. 6 American F. Shop.72-82 American Forestry.. 50 American Glass Co. 125 American Greenhse. Mfg. Co Ill American Landscape School 98 American Rose & Plant Co Ill Amling Co 30-31 Andersen Spec. Co. .124 Anderson, S. A 78 Anderson Greenhse.. 88 Andes Evergreen 48 Angermueller, G. H.118 Annavee Fir. Shop.. 95 Aphlne Mfg. Co 120 Archias Floral Co.. 73 Arizona Floral Co.. 93 Armacost & Co 103 Art Floral Co 93 Artlndale & Son 69 Aschmann, G 114 Aschmann Bros 110 Ashborne Goldfish... 52 Asman 85 Atchison Fir. Store. 73 Athletic Club Florist 94 Atkins 88 Atlantic City Fir. Shop 70 Attica Floral Co 79 Audubon Nursery.. .109 Aull Bros. Co 42 Aurora Greenhouse. 86 Austin, H 61 Avenue Floral Co... 88 Axell, J. A 10:4 B. Bader, John 113 Baer, Julius 65 Bailey, Harry 104 Bailey & Sons Co.. 88 Baker Bros 84 Baker, W. J 45 Ball, C. D 114 Ball Floral Co 73 Bancroft & Son 92 Barnard Co I Barnes, W. J 72 Ban- & Co., B. F... 80 Barton, W. B 80 Bassett & Washburn 9 Bath, John H 96 Baumer, A. B 81 Baumgarten 89 Baum's 83 Baur Floral Co 81 Baur & Stelnkamp. .110 Baur Window Glass. 125 Bauscher, John 86 Bayersdorfer & Co.. 47 Beacon Florist 74 Beard Floral Co 85 Beaven, E. A 50 Becker's Cons 73 Beckerfs Seed 62 Beehler, Adam 70 Begero-w, A. C 70 Belmont Fir. Shop.. 75 Bemb Floral Co 85 Bentzen Floral Co.. 72 Berger Bros 44 Berger's Sons, Wm. 80 Berning, H. G 97 Bertermann Bros... 79 Besancon & Co 80 Bester & Sons 84 Bills Floral Co 92 Bisslnger, J. A 85 Blackistone, Z. D.. 70 Blake's 91 Blake & Son 126 Blome & Co 86 Blossom Floral Co.. 79 Blossom Shop 72 BIiiMnize B. Shop.. 85 Blum & Son, B 88 Bobbink & Atkins.. 110 Bolgiano & Son 61 Bonnet A Blake 99 Boston Fl. Supply & Snyder Co 98 Boston Florist 77 Boston's Fl. Store.. 84 Bowe, M. A 77 Boyle & Damaud... 93 Brague 8c Son 60 Bramley & Son..91-121 Braslan Co 59 Breitmeyer's Sons.. 85 Bright Spot Ghs 88 Brinkerhoff Ghses... 86 Broadway KJprists.. 94 Broderick, IC^ T 76 Brobrib, J. A 76 Brooklns & Son.... 45 Brown, A. C 86 Brown, Chas. H 77 Brown Bag Filling Machine Co 59 Brown Bros 70 Brown wood Flo. Co. 84 Brunger, C. A 03 Bruns, H. N Sn Bryan, A. J 115 Brj-ant & Son 109 Buchanan Floral Co. 84 Buchbinder Bros 52 Buchholz, Eric 79 Budlong, J. A 34 Bunyard, A. T 77 Burlington AVillow Ware 14-15 Burns, H. H 77 Burpee Co 59-62 Burrows, E. G 76 Burt, A. J 95 Buschardt, Wm. F..12G Butterworth Fl. Co. 85 C. Caldwell Woodsman. 51 California Fl. Co.. .102 California Florist... 94 Callahan, M. J 80 Capital City Floral. 84 Capitol Floral Co... 83 Caple, Walter W... 85 Carbone, Philip L.. 74 Carek, F. G 90 Carolina Fir. Store. 84 Casper Floral Co... 88 Cass, W. & T 77 Central Floral Co... 87 Champion & Co 75 Chapin Bros 96 Charleston Cut Flo.. 84 Cherrywood Fum... 60 Chicago Carton Co.. 42 Chicago Feed & Fertilizer 122 Chgo. Flower Grow- ers' Aasn 32-33 Cincinnati Cut Fir.. .97 City & Kentia Nur- series 106 Clark Seed Co 69 Clarke Bros 94 Clarke's Sons 77 Classified Advs 128 Climax Mfg. Co 42 Clody's Fir. Shop... 87 Cobby's Fir. Shop... 81 Coggan, S. W 85 Cokely's 46-52 Coleman, Joe 63 Colonial Fir. Shop.. 78 Colorado Seed Co... 98 Columbia Flo. Co... 73 Comley, Henry H... 74 Conard & Jones 109 Connon Co 70 Constlen, B. B 92 Coombs 75 Cooper, Henry S 109 Coronado Nursery.. 93 Cottage Gardens Nurs 107 Cotton the Florist.74-8.S Coy Seed Co 59 Crabb, A. F 85 Craig Co., R 16-17 Creech, V. Hermann 82 Crescent Garden.... 80 Critchell, C. E 61 Crouch, Chas. W 83 Crowl Fern Co 48 Crump, Frank F 88 Gulp & Co 73 Cunningham F. Shop 84 Curran & Co 117 Currie & Co., A 89 D. Danish Seed Import. 60 Danker 78 Darbee 93-105 Dards, Chas. A 76 Darling's Shop 94 Daut Bros 86 Davis Flo. Co 73 Day Co 76 Deans, Ralph 82 Denver Wholesale.. 98 Derrick, Florist 76 Dethlefs, Wm 96 Dickinson, E. C 82 Dicks Flower Shop. 70 Diener, Richard 105 Dietsch Co., A 118 Dingley's 69 Dixon Crucible Co. .118 Text Appearing After Image: 808 S. i:>earborn St^ CHICAGO Get your ads to the paper Friday or Saturday when you can—not later than MONDAY Dixon Floral Co.... 86 Domoto Broe 105 Donof rio Flo. Dept.. 93 Domer & Sons Co.. 114 Doswell's 79 Dreer, H. A 116-124-128 Drevon-Tegelaar ... 60 Drury, H. F 86 Dudley Sons Co 8* Duerr, Chas. A 92 Duluth Floral Co... 96 Dumke Floral Co... 88 Dunlop, John H.... 70 Dunn, Robert L 70 Durable Prod. Co... 120 Durham Floral Co.. 82 Duro Paper Prod... 42 Dux Co 49 Dwelle-Kaiser 125 E. Eble, Chas 88 Ecke, Paul 103 Edlefsen-Leidiger .. 89 Edwanls Floral Co.. 76 Egg Harbor F. Shop 76 Ehle, Fred G 106 Eldred Flower Shop. 94 Elm City Nursery.. 108 Elverson Pottery... 120 Elyria Fir. Shoppe.. 92 Engelmann, C 60 Engle Floral Co 91 Enid Floral Co 84 Bnomoto & Co 103 Eppstein, Julius 93 Erlckson, J. W 106 Erne & Co 37 Bspelln Flo. Co 8k Eugene's Fir. Shop. 95 Evans, A. W. B 80 Evans the Florist.. 85 Evans Co., John A..IV Evenden Bros 80 Evenden's Sons 80 Ever-Beady Fl. Pot. 49 Excello Mfg. Co 127 Excelsior Gmhses... 73 F. Fallon, Florist 83-84 Fallon Co., J. J...81-82 Fallon, John 83 Farmers' Nursery.. .108 Feast, S., & Sons... 84 Federal Process 123 Felton's For Flowers 00 Fertile Chemical Co. 122 Fetters, E. A 85 Field, L. C 73 Fischer. Rudolph... 106 Fisher & Bro 87 Fisher Governor Co. 118 Fleischman 87 Fletcher, F. W 62 Flick Floral Co 79 Floral Art Studio... 78 Floral Exchange 95 Florists' Supply Co. 97 Florists' Supply House.. 98 Flower Shop 73-75-82-83-89 Flowershop, The 93 Foerster Co 39 Foley Mfg. Co 141 Forber, G. F 92 Ford, Frank H 82 Ford, M. C 99 Forshaw, S. H 95 Foster Floral Co 84 Fox & Son 89 Franklin Park Flo.. 90 Fraser Nursery Co. 82 Fraser & Son 102 Frauenfelder, C 87 Freeman, Mrs. J. B. 90 Frey & Frey 96 Frey, C. H 96 Friedman 87 Frost, Chas 63 Furrow & Co 84 Futterman Bros 99 Q. Gage Co 107 Galloway Bros. Co.. 92 Galvin, Inc., Thos.. 75 Gammage & Sons.. 70 Gardiner Flo. Co... 92 Gary Floral Co 79 Gasser Co 91 Gause, G. B 79 Genteman, H. A 86 Geny Bros 83 George, Inc 83 Gibbs Bros 75 Giblin & Co 117 Giles, John S 80 Gillett, E. G 97 Gimbel's 89 Gleave's Fir. Shop.. 93 Gloeckner, Wm 78 Gloekler Co 62 Gnatt Co., Ove 1 Goetz Sons 85 Goldsboro Flo. Co.. 82 (Joldstein, 1 99 Gooch, Gen. A. J... 104 Goodbrad Floral Co. 82 Gove, Mrs. C. C 75 Graham & Son 91 Grakelow, C. H 80 Grand Rapids Fl. Co. 85 Grandy 83 Green the Florist... 86 Greene's Fir. Shop. 79 Greenhouse Sup. Co.ll7 Grever, Wm. H 78 Griffith, James F...118 Grimm & Gorly 72 Grohe, Fred 105 Grohman 85 Grossberg & Cahill. 91 Groves Floral Co... 73 Grulich & Sons 76 Gude Bros. Co 70 Guido, Inc 77 Guilett & Sons 8 Gumey Grnhse. Co. 96 Guthrle-Lorenz Co.. 92 H. Habermehl's Sons.. 80 Halbrooks, P. M... 92 Hall & Co 100 Hall & Robinson... 70 Hamilton Bros 50 Hamme, E. J 89 Hammerschmidt & Clark 91 Hammond Co 83 Hanfling Co 99 Hannah & Son 84 Harkett's Flo. Nur. 92 Harris. Wm. K. 115 Harris Bros 80 Harris Mfg. Co 120 Harris & Lever 78 Hart, Geo. B 41-97 Hart, Inc., H 77 Hart & Vick 62 Hasselbring 85 Hastings, Frank R. 80 Haven Seed Co 69 Hawkins, W. H 106 Hayes, James 73 Hayman Gnhse. Co. 84 Hecock Floral Co.. 02 Heelas Flower Store 78 Heepe Co 91 Hefko, T. D 114 Heinl & Son, J. G.. 79 Heinl & Sons, J.... 86 Heller & Co 62 Hembreiker & Cole. 86 Hemstead, Barl L.126 Hencle, Miles S 76 Henderson, Lewis... 9b Henderson & Co.... I Henry Co 10 Herbert & Flei- Bhauer 108 Herrick, A. D 76 Herron, D. B 78 Hess & Swoboda... 96 Hews & Co 120 Highland Park Ghs. 87 Hill & Co., Dave... 80 Hill Co.,j!;. G I Hill Co., J. H Ill Hill Nursery Co 100 Hinde & Dauch 42 Hitchings & Co 144 Hody & Tulea 90 Hogan & Evers 93 Hogewoning & Sons. 60 Hollywood Fl. Shop. 93 Hollywood Gardens. 95 Holm & Olson 96 Holton & Hunkel... 98 Honaker the Florist 81 Horan & Son 75 Horn Floral Co 90 Hornaday Greenhse. 84 Hosp, A. M 94 Howard Rose Co.. .104 Howard & Smith... 94 Huddart Floral Co.. 88 Hudson & Son 78 Humboldt Evergreen.106 Humphrey, C. L 01 Huntley, Martha 81 Hurff, E. F 59 Huscroft's Fl. Shop. 90 I. Ickes-Braun 126 Idle Hour Floral Co. 83 Idlewild Grnhse 83 Illinois Malleable... 118 Ionia Pottery Co.. .120 Irwin, Roman J I Isherwood Grnhse... 73 J. Jackson & Perkins. 108 Jaeger & Son 104 Jahn, H. H 78 James & Son 78 Johansen-Wlnslow . 69 Johnson & Chronis.. 87 Johnson Basket 98 Johnson, J. L 86 Johnson, Mrs. Stella 84 Johnson's Gmhses.. '83 Johnston, Mary 84 Johnston Bros 75 Johnston's Fl. Shop 92 Johnston & Co 75 Jointless Fire Brick. 117 Joliet Floral Co 86 Jones, Percy 97 Jones-Russell Co 91 Joseph, B. M 93 Joy Floral Co 83 K. Kahler Pottery Co.. 120 Kansas City Cut Flower Co 40 Kasting Co I Keheley, J. T 82 Keller Co., John 81 Keller Sons, J. B... 78 Keller Pottery Co.. .121 Kelway & Son 60 Kemble's Flowers.. 92 Kennedy & Sons... 76 Kennicott Bros 36 Kent Bros 02 Kerr, R. C 84 Kervan Co 46-99 Kessler, Wm 99 Keys, Wm. F 84 Kidwell Co 87 Klger, N 91 Kimberlin Seed Co.. 59 King Cons. Co 125 King Florist, The... 70 Kinsman, A. N 96 Klrchner's Flowers. 91 Knees & Son 86 Knoble Bros 71-90 KnuU Floral Co 82 Kooyman Co 101-106 Koppelman, J. E... 98 Kottmlller, A 77 Kramer & Son 92 Kroeschell Bros 116 Kruchten, John 97 Krueger, Otto P 90 Krueger Co.,Cha8.F. 80 Krug Floral Co 86 Kuehn, C. A 50-97 Kuhl, G. A 87-115 Kusik & Co 98 X. La Crosse Floral Co. 8ft Lager & Hurrell 115 Lakeview Rose Gdn. 78 L. A. Floral Co 100 Lambourne, Ernest. 88 Landreth Seed Co.. 69 Lane, Geo. F 75 Lang Floral Co 84 Lange, A 87 Lange, H. F. A 74 Langohr, M 88 Lankford, W. A 83 Larmon, L. L 96 Laver, J. V 81 Lawrence Flo. Co... 82 Le Borious, J. J 96 Lelghton, Florist... 69 Leigh ton Floral Co.. 73 Lemon & Co 79-111 Lemon Oil Co 126 Leonard Seed Co 59 Lesure 74 Lewis Bros 123 Lichtenberg's 94 Llggit, C. U 61 Lindley Box 43 Lion & Co 46 Lohman Fl. Shop... 96 Lohr, Wm. S 86 Lord's Fir. Room.. 73 LordABurnham.142-143 LoB^fc|eIe8 Gera- LmHHM Nursery. 107 Louise Flower Shop 70 Louweipe & Co 92 I^overidge, Chas 86 Lowe's Flo. Shop... 94 Lubliner 94 Lubliner, Wm 89 Ludwig Flo. Co 80 Ludwlg, B. C, Co.. 80 M. MacRorle-McLaren.. 93 McCallum Co 30 McCarron, Miss 83 McClunie, Geo. G... 75 McClure-Coffman ... 84 McCoy, L. W 95 McCray Refrigera- tor 62 McElroy, T. P 96 McFarlands 91 McHutchlson & Co.. 61 McKenna, Ltd 70 McMurray, R. S 113 McRae-Jenklnson ... 81 Majestic Floral Co.. 84 Malandre Bros 76 Mangel, John 87 Mansfield Floral Co. 92 March & Sons 125 Marlnelli, H. B Ill Marquardt, F. G... 60 Marret & Miller 81 Marshall, Geo. W.. 84 Marvin, Ira G 80 Massmann 76 Matthews, W. G 90 Matthewson, J. E.. 89 Maufr Floral Co 88 Mav, Harry 0 76 Mead-Suydam Co...123 Meadowbrook Nur... 76 Meconl, Paul 99 Meehan, Chas. E... 45 Meier-Schroeder Co. 89 Meinhart, J. B 72 Memphis Floral Co. 83 Menand, H. L 78 Mendelson Bros. ...109 Merrill, Alice B 74 Metairie Ridge Nur. 88 Metropolitan Mate- rial Co.. .118-121-124 Metz & Bateman... 90 Meyer, Adolph 77 Meyer Thread Co... 98 Miami Floral Co... 82 Michell Co., H. F..114 Michigan Cut Fir... 50 Michler Bros. Co... 81 Mickley , 89 Milady's Fir. Shop. 96 Miller, A. L 114 Miller, H. T 91 Miller the Florist.. 81 Miller Floral Co.88-103 Miller & Son 86 Mills the Florist... 82 Mlnge Floral Co 82 .A .«>.-.. Note About Images Please note that these images are extracted from scanned page images that may have been digitally enhanced for readability - coloration and appearance of these illustrations may not perfectly resemble the original work.

Title: Florists' review [microform] Identifier: 5205536_26_2 Year: (s) Authors: Subjects: Floriculture Publisher: Chicago : Florists' Pub. Co Contributing Library: University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Digitizing Sponsor: University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign View Book Page: Book Viewer About This Book: Catalog Entry View All Images: All Images From Book Click here to view book online to see this illustration in context in a browseable online version of this book. Text Appearing Before Image: 78 The Weekly Florists^ Review. SnmiiBiB 1, Itit. fiVI^ Text Appearing After Image: Carton Bldif. •540eart>oraSt. CHICAQO Advertising forms close TUESDAY The latest hour at which ad- vertisements, or changes of advertisements, can be accepted Is 5 p. m. Tuesday. INDEX TO Adirance Co 78 Adf«ace Floral Co.. S3 Allen, 3. K 40 Alpha Floral Co 68 Amer. Blower Co... 70 Atneriean Window OlaiM Co 76 American Wooden- ware Mfg. Ce 74 Amlliig, ■. C 18 Asderaen Specialty Co 77 AoderaoB, S. A 34 Aaderwa Floral Co. 33 Andorra Nurseries.. 54 Aptaine iltg. Oo 20 AacttmaBB, 0 58 AogvpurKer & Sons. 67 Bacbe & Co 77 Badarac'co, Teresa.. 33 Bader, John 57 Baker, Geo. C 35 Baker, W. J 47 Ball, C. D 68 Barnard Co 1 Barteldea Seed Co.. 61 Baasett 4 Washburn _ a-56 Baaaett's Floral Gardens 48 Baumann & Co 4 Baar A Smith 67 Baur Floral Co 1 Baur Wiudow Glass. 76 Bayeradurfer A Co.. 27 Bearen, E. A 28 Bell, Albert 75 Beneke, J. J 33 Bennett, John 64 Berger * Co 44 Berber Bros 25 Berke, G. H 34 Bemlieimer, B 47 Bernlng, H. Q 47 BertermaDD Bros..33-59 Beyer Floral Oo 34 Blnley, A.J 23 Binney A Smith Co. 26 Black, Clias 64 BlackIstone, Z. D... 33 Blake A Sun 74 Boddlngton, A. T 1-40-41-48 BobOHlaT, B. A 54 Bonnet A Blake 48 Bonnot Bros 49 Bowe, li. A 32 Brague A Son 29 Braslan Seed Growers' Co 36 Breitmeyer's Sons .. 34 Brldgeman'8 Seed Wareliouse 40 Brown, A. C 33-55 Brans, H. N 40 Badlong, J. A 2-56 "Bads'*^ 37 Bnnyard Floral Co.. 34 Burnett Bros 44 Burpee A Co 36 Caldwell Co., W. E. 79 Caldwell Ttie Woods- man Co 28 Oamp Conduit Co... 79 Carrlllo A Baldwin. 56 Ohapin Bros 33 Chicago Carnation Co. 1-53 Obilds, Jolin Lewis. 42 Clark Seed Co 36 Olarke Bros 33 Olarkp's Sons 35 Olaaslfied Advs 60 Cleveland Cut Flower Oo 34 Ollmax Mfg. Co.... 45 Conard A Jones.... 54 Coombs, John 35 Oorts A Sob 74 Cotaonafl A Co 48 Cowee. W. J 50 >VE£TISEBS. ralg Co., R 5 Irawbuck, H. R 48 Cktcbell, C, E 29 Crowl Ferilt>..i... 2» Currle Bros. Co 39 Dallas Floral Co 34 Dards, Cbas. A 33 Darrow, H. F 38 Detroit Cut Flower Supply House .... 49 Dletseh Co., A...,. 80 Dlller, Caskey A Keen 75 Dillon, J. L 51 Dlngee & Conard... 64 Dorner A Sons Co... 55 Dreer, H. A 59-77 Dreyer, H 57 Drumm Seed A Floral Co 32 Dunlop, John H 35 Dutcb Bulb A Seed Growers Co 38 Eagle Machine Wks. 79 Edwards Folding Box Co 45 Ehret, Fred 34 Elchbolz, Henry ... 65 Elsele, C 68 Elliott A Sons 42 Ellwanger A Barry. 62 Elverson Pot'ry Co. 73 Krlfliacb, H. F 74 Exotic Nurseries.... 46 Kyrcs, H. G 32 Fellourls, J. J 48 Fiedler A Co 33 Fislier Co 32 Florists* Hail Assn. 77 Flower Growers Market 50 Foley Mfg. Co 75 Ford, M. C 49 Ford A Kendig Co.. 68 Forster-Mansfleld Mfg. Co 48 Foster Engineering Co 68 Fox, C. H 35 Freeman Co., G. L.. 66 Freeport Floral Co.. 32 Frcy, C. H 35 Froment, H. E 48 Frost, C 43 (Jaivin, Inc., Thos.. 35 Garland Co 79 Gasser Co 33 Geller Florist Co... 48 Gllilln A Co 72 Glllett, E. G 51 Golseo-Doan Coal Co 69 Granite State Mow- ing Machine Co.. 44 Greater N. Y. Flo- rist Assn 48 Grohe, F'red 46 Grootendorst A Sons 38 ! Groves, Robt 29 Growers' Cut Flower Co 49 Gude Bros. Co 35 Guntlier Bros 49 Gunton A Oliver.... 66 Outtman, A. J 49 Hail A Robinson... 33 1 Harrisburg-Franklln I Coal Co 69 Harrison Pottery... 73 Hart, Geo. B 50 Ilarlmann A Co .IS Ileacock Co., Jos... 59 , Helm A Son 74 1 Helnl, Geo. A .S4 Helul A Son, J. G.. 33 Heiss Co 82 Herbert A Son 56 Herrmann, A 49 Hess A Swoboda... .^4 Hews A Co., A. H. 73 Hill Co.. E. G II Hlnde A Danch Paper Co 4S HIppard, E 68-78 Hitchlngs A Co 79 Hoerber Bros 60 Hoffman, S 35 Hollcraft, M. B 33 Hollywood Gardens. 33 Holm A Olson 32 Holton A Hunkel... 22 Hooker Co., H. M.. 77 Horticultural Advertiser 67 Horticultural Print- ing Co 67 Hubbard Co 64 Huglison Steam Spe- cialty Co 72 Hunkel Co., G. H.. 42 Hunt, B. H 23-66-73-75-77 Igoe Bros 75 Illinois Heater A Mfg. Co 44 Illinois Malleable I ron Co 72 Ionia Pottery Co... 73 Isbell A Co., S. M.. 36 Jackson A Perkins.. 53 Jacob A Allison 22 Jacobs A Sons 79 Jeffrey, Louis 36 Johnson A Son, Ltd. 38 Johnson Co., D. D.. 73 .Tohnson Seed Co.... 40 Johnston A Co 35 Johnston Heat'g Co. 71 Jones, H. T 63 i«Dea, P. .... < 50 Kasting Co S Keller A Son 73 Keller Pottery Co.. 73 Kellogg Flower A Plant Co 35 Kempf, H 46 Kenney, H 40 Kennlcott Bros 4-53 Kentucky Tobacco Product 66 Kepner, J. A 35 Kervan Co 28 Kessler Bros 49 King Construction .. 75 Kitts Mfg. Co 71 Knoble Bros 32 Kramer A Son 73 Krick, C. A 51 Kroeschell Bros 71 Kruchten, John 60 Kupbler, Wm 49 Kuehn, C. A 47 Kuhl, Geo. A 32-59 Kulp, John 63 Kyle A Foerster 2 Lager A Hurrell 66 Lecakes A Co 48 Leedham Bulb Co.. 46 Leedle Floral Co 54 Leonard Seed Co... 36 Lllley, S. F 47 Lilly Co 38 Limbert A Co., G. B. 72 Lion ft Co 6 Livingston Seed...33-45 Loomis Carnation Co. 46 Lord A Burnham... 74 Lord's Flower Room 35 Louisville Floral Co. 28 Loveil, E. 0 33 Liibllner A Trlnz... 33 MoCallnm Co 51 McCarthy A Sons... 55 McConnell, Alex 32 McCray Refrigerator Co 26 McCullough's Sons.. 61 McGregor Bros. Co. 1 McKellar, Chas 22 McKenna A Son 35 McManus, Jas 48 McMorran A Co.... 66 MacRorle-McLaren Co 46 Manhattan Elec- trical Supply Co.. 68 Martin Grate Co... 70 Marvin, Ira G 33 Mastin A Co 78 Masur, S 34 •May A Co., L. L... 35 Merrltt. J. W 48 Metropolitan Floral „Co 35 Mette. Henry .38 Mlchell Co.. H. F.. 26 Michigan Cut Flower Exchange 28 Millang, August.... 48 Millang, Chas 49 Miller. J. W 57 Minneapolis Floral Co 33 Mitchell A Son 54 Moltz A Co 48 Moninger Co so Montgomery County Coal Co 69 Moore. Hentz A Nash 48 Morehead Mfg. Co.. 68 Morse A Co., C. C. 36 Muller, O. A 75 Munk Floral Co 50 Munson, H 72 Murphy, Wm 51 Murray, Samuel 34 Myer 32 National Floral Ribbon House .... 6 National Florists' Board of Trade.. 48 Natural Guano Co.. 73 Neidlnger, J. G 26 Newburys, The 34 Newman A Sons.... 32 New York Belting A Packing Co 67 Nicotine Mfg. Co... 72 NIessen Co., Leo... 24 Non-Breakable Flower Vase Co... 24 North Carolina Ever- green Co 29 Oberlln, T. J 63 OechsUn, F 65 Paducah Pott'y Co. 73 Palethorpe Co 66 Palmer A Son 32 Park Floral Co 35 Pennock-Meehan Co. 25 Perry's Hardy Plant Farm 38 Peters A Reed 73 Peterson, J. A...'.. 1 Peterson Nursery.., 53 Phlla. Cut Flower.. 47 Pierce Co., F. O 77 Plerson Co., F. R.. 68 Pleters-Wheeler Seed Co 36 Pikes Peak Flo. Co. 61 Pine Tree Silk Mills 20 Pittsburg Cut . Flower Co 61 Pittsburg Florists' • Bxohange 61 Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co 77 Plath, H 46 Poehlmann Bros. .21-55 Poll worth Co 35-45 Poulsen, D. T 38 Pritchard, J. N 28 Pulverized Manure.. 73 Purnell, W. Z 28 Quaker City Machine Works... 79 Raedleln Basket Co. 26 Kahn A Herbert 46 Randall Co 20 Randolph A McClements 77 Rawson A Co 39 Reed A Keller 49 Regan Ptg. House.. 51 Reld, Edw 47 Relnberg, Geo 50 Relnberg, P 3-56 Retail Florists 32-33-34-35 Revere Rubber Co.. 67 Rice A Co., M 6 Rice Bros 51 Rice Co., J. H 77 Rickards Bros 40 Robinson A Co 28 Rock Co., Wm 32 Roehrs Co 58 Rohnert, Waldo ... 36 Roland, Thos 59 Rolker A Sons 38 Rose Gardens 42 Rosemont Gardens.. 34 Rosens, B 49 Routzahn Seed Co.. 36 Rupp, J. F 42 Rusconi, D 42 Rnssin A Handing.. 49 Saltford, Geo 49 Sander 56 Schiller, J. L 42 Schlllo, Adam 80 Schlatter A Son 74 Schmidt, H 57 Sehmltz, F. W. 0.. 57 Schroeter, B .32 Schultbeis, Anton... 35 Schultheis, E. D... 59 Schiilz, Jacob 33 Scott, John 68 Sefton Mfg. Co 45 Sliarkey, John F... 32 Sharp. Partridge... 80 Sheridan, W. F 40 Sibson Rose Nur- series 46 Skldelsky A Irwin.. 39 Skinner Irrigation.. 76 Slinn, B. S 48 Smith, Henry 34 Smith, P. J 48 Smith A Co., E. D. 57 Smith Co., A. W... 32 Smith Co., W. A T. 52 Smith, Lineaweaver. 69 Smith Wholesale Floral Co 47 Smyth, W. J 32" Spokane Florist Co. 34 Springfield Floral Co 66 Standard Pump A Engine Co 78 State Nursery Co... 35 Stewart, E. E 39 Stewart, S. B 33 Stokes' Seed Store. 39 Stootboff Co., H. A. 66 Storrs A Harrison.. 54 Stumpp A Walter.41-66 Superior Machine A Boiler Works 70 Swanson, Aug. S... 34 Swanson's 84 Syracuse Pott'y Co. 73 Tallby A Son 34 Taylor Steam Spe- cialty Co 72 Teas A Son 63 Thompson Carnation 65 Thorburn A Co 43 Toledo Plate A Window Glass Co. 77 Tonseth Floral Co.. 34 Toole A Sons 43 Totty, C. H 65 Traendly A Schenck 49 U. S. Cut Flo. Co.. 60 U. S. Radiator Cor- poration 72 U. S. Nursery Co... 52 Van Grieken, L 38 Vaughan A Sperry.-4-50 Vesey, W. J. A M. S 65 Vlck A Hill Co 54 VIck's Sons, J 44 Vincent, Jr., & Sons Co 67-76 Virgin, U. J 34 Wagner Park Con- servatories 63 Want Advs 29 Ward A Co 30 Weber, V. H 83 Welland, John 84 Weiland A RIsch... 00 Wets A Schmidt 78 Welch Bros 60 Werthelmer Bros... 6 Whltsett Coal A Mining Co 60 Wlotor Broa. 00 Wild, Gilbert H 68 Wild Broa. Nnraerr Co 88 Wild Floral C* 68 Wiles, E. W 48 Wilks Mfg. Oe 71 Wilson, B. a 32 Windier, R. J 38 Winterson'a See4 Store ..:. 44 Wittboirt Co 31-35 Wolfskin. J. W 34 Woodruff A SoM... 88 Wood worth A Parker 08 Young, J. W 47 Young A Co., A. li. 40 Young A Sons Co... 84 Yuess Gardens Co.. 44 Zangen, O. T 42 Zech A Mann 50 Zvolanek, A. 0 43 There is Just One Best Pumping Engine for yonr vreenhoaae or ont- door Irrigratlon system. The enclne that will fnmlsh yon a reliable and steady power at all tlmea la the ■tandard Pumping ^^a^ripe This is the pnmping engine, the cost of operating which stops when yon stop water- ing. It furnishes rain for yonr cropa Jnat when they need it. Send for circahtra. BTAKDARD PUMP Si KNGin CO. 14 Mloblawi St.. Clevaland, OUlo Note About Images Please note that these images are extracted from scanned page images that may have been digitally enhanced for readability - coloration and appearance of these illustrations may not perfectly resemble the original work.

Title: Florists' review [microform] Identifier: 5205536_26_2 Year: (s) Authors: Subjects: Floriculture Publisher: Chicago : Florists' Pub. Co Contributing Library: University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Digitizing Sponsor: University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign View Book Page: Book Viewer About This Book: Catalog Entry View All Images: All Images From Book Click here to view book online to see this illustration in context in a browseable online version of this book. Text Appearing Before Image: Carton Bldif. •540eart>oraSt. CHICAQO Advertising forms close TUESDAY The latest hour at which ad- vertisements, or changes of advertisements, can be accepted Is 5 p. m. Tuesday. INDEX TO Adirance Co 78 Adf«ace Floral Co.. S3 Allen, 3. K 40 Alpha Floral Co 68 Amer. Blower Co... 70 Atneriean Window OlaiM Co 76 American Wooden- ware Mfg. Ce 74 Amlliig, ■. C 18 Asderaen Specialty Co 77 AoderaoB, S. A 34 Aaderwa Floral Co. 33 Andorra Nurseries.. 54 Aptaine iltg. Oo 20 AacttmaBB, 0 58 AogvpurKer & Sons. 67 Bacbe & Co 77 Badarac'co, Teresa.. 33 Bader, John 57 Baker, Geo. C 35 Baker, W. J 47 Ball, C. D 68 Barnard Co 1 Barteldea Seed Co.. 61 Baasett 4 Washburn _ a-56 Baaaett's Floral Gardens 48 Baumann & Co 4 Baar A Smith 67 Baur Floral Co 1 Baur Wiudow Glass. 76 Bayeradurfer A Co.. 27 Bearen, E. A 28 Bell, Albert 75 Beneke, J. J 33 Bennett, John 64 Berger * Co 44 Berber Bros 25 Berke, G. H 34 Bemlieimer, B 47 Bernlng, H. Q 47 BertermaDD Bros..33-59 Beyer Floral Oo 34 Blnley, A.J 23 Binney A Smith Co. 26 Black, Clias 64 BlackIstone, Z. D... 33 Blake A Sun 74 Boddlngton, A. T 1-40-41-48 BobOHlaT, B. A 54 Bonnet A Blake 48 Bonnot Bros 49 Bowe, li. A 32 Brague A Son 29 Braslan Seed Growers' Co 36 Breitmeyer's Sons .. 34 Brldgeman'8 Seed Wareliouse 40 Brown, A. C 33-55 Brans, H. N 40 Badlong, J. A 2-56 "Bads'*^ 37 Bnnyard Floral Co.. 34 Burnett Bros 44 Burpee A Co 36 Caldwell Co., W. E. 79 Caldwell Ttie Woods- man Co 28 Oamp Conduit Co... 79 Carrlllo A Baldwin. 56 Ohapin Bros 33 Chicago Carnation Co. 1-53 Obilds, Jolin Lewis. 42 Clark Seed Co 36 Olarke Bros 33 Olarkp's Sons 35 Olaaslfied Advs 60 Cleveland Cut Flower Oo 34 Ollmax Mfg. Co.... 45 Conard A Jones.... 54 Coombs, John 35 Oorts A Sob 74 Cotaonafl A Co 48 Cowee. W. J 50 >VE£TISEBS. ralg Co., R 5 Irawbuck, H. R 48 Cktcbell, C, E 29 Crowl Ferilt>..i... 2» Currle Bros. Co 39 Dallas Floral Co 34 Dards, Cbas. A 33 Darrow, H. F 38 Detroit Cut Flower Supply House .... 49 Dletseh Co., A...,. 80 Dlller, Caskey A Keen 75 Dillon, J. L 51 Dlngee & Conard... 64 Dorner A Sons Co... 55 Dreer, H. A 59-77 Dreyer, H 57 Drumm Seed A Floral Co 32 Dunlop, John H 35 Dutcb Bulb A Seed Growers Co 38 Eagle Machine Wks. 79 Edwards Folding Box Co 45 Ehret, Fred 34 Elchbolz, Henry ... 65 Elsele, C 68 Elliott A Sons 42 Ellwanger A Barry. 62 Elverson Pot'ry Co. 73 Krlfliacb, H. F 74 Exotic Nurseries.... 46 Kyrcs, H. G 32 Fellourls, J. J 48 Fiedler A Co 33 Fislier Co 32 Florists* Hail Assn. 77 Flower Growers Market 50 Foley Mfg. Co 75 Ford, M. C 49 Ford A Kendig Co.. 68 Forster-Mansfleld Mfg. Co 48 Foster Engineering Co 68 Fox, C. H 35 Freeman Co., G. L.. 66 Freeport Floral Co.. 32 Frcy, C. H 35 Froment, H. E 48 Frost, C 43 (Jaivin, Inc., Thos.. 35 Garland Co 79 Gasser Co 33 Geller Florist Co... 48 Gllilln A Co 72 Glllett, E. G 51 Golseo-Doan Coal Co 69 Granite State Mow- ing Machine Co.. 44 Greater N. Y. Flo- rist Assn 48 Grohe, F'red 46 Grootendorst A Sons 38 ! Groves, Robt 29 Growers' Cut Flower Co 49 Gude Bros. Co 35 Guntlier Bros 49 Gunton A Oliver.... 66 Outtman, A. J 49 Hail A Robinson... 33 1 Harrisburg-Franklln I Coal Co 69 Harrison Pottery... 73 Hart, Geo. B 50 Ilarlmann A Co .IS Ileacock Co., Jos... 59 , Helm A Son 74 1 Helnl, Geo. A .S4 Helul A Son, J. G.. 33 Heiss Co 82 Herbert A Son 56 Herrmann, A 49 Hess A Swoboda... .^4 Hews A Co., A. H. 73 Hill Co.. E. G II Hlnde A Danch Paper Co 4S HIppard, E 68-78 Hitchlngs A Co 79 Hoerber Bros 60 Hoffman, S 35 Hollcraft, M. B 33 Hollywood Gardens. 33 Holm A Olson 32 Holton A Hunkel... 22 Hooker Co., H. M.. 77 Horticultural Advertiser 67 Horticultural Print- ing Co 67 Hubbard Co 64 Huglison Steam Spe- cialty Co 72 Hunkel Co., G. H.. 42 Hunt, B. H 23-66-73-75-77 Igoe Bros 75 Illinois Heater A Mfg. Co 44 Illinois Malleable I ron Co 72 Ionia Pottery Co... 73 Isbell A Co., S. M.. 36 Jackson A Perkins.. 53 Jacob A Allison 22 Jacobs A Sons 79 Jeffrey, Louis 36 Johnson A Son, Ltd. 38 Johnson Co., D. D.. 73 .Tohnson Seed Co.... 40 Johnston A Co 35 Johnston Heat'g Co. 71 Jones, H. T 63 i«Dea, P. .... < 50 Kasting Co S Keller A Son 73 Keller Pottery Co.. 73 Kellogg Flower A Plant Co 35 Kempf, H 46 Kenney, H 40 Kennlcott Bros 4-53 Kentucky Tobacco Product 66 Kepner, J. A 35 Kervan Co 28 Kessler Bros 49 King Construction .. 75 Kitts Mfg. Co 71 Knoble Bros 32 Kramer A Son 73 Krick, C. A 51 Kroeschell Bros 71 Kruchten, John 60 Kupbler, Wm 49 Kuehn, C. A 47 Kuhl, Geo. A 32-59 Kulp, John 63 Kyle A Foerster 2 Lager A Hurrell 66 Lecakes A Co 48 Leedham Bulb Co.. 46 Leedle Floral Co 54 Leonard Seed Co... 36 Lllley, S. F 47 Lilly Co 38 Limbert A Co., G. B. 72 Lion ft Co 6 Livingston Seed...33-45 Loomis Carnation Co. 46 Lord A Burnham... 74 Lord's Flower Room 35 Louisville Floral Co. 28 Loveil, E. 0 33 Liibllner A Trlnz... 33 MoCallnm Co 51 McCarthy A Sons... 55 McConnell, Alex 32 McCray Refrigerator Co 26 McCullough's Sons.. 61 McGregor Bros. Co. 1 McKellar, Chas 22 McKenna A Son 35 McManus, Jas 48 McMorran A Co.... 66 MacRorle-McLaren Co 46 Manhattan Elec- trical Supply Co.. 68 Martin Grate Co... 70 Marvin, Ira G 33 Mastin A Co 78 Masur, S 34 •May A Co., L. L... 35 Merrltt. J. W 48 Metropolitan Floral „Co 35 Mette. Henry .38 Mlchell Co.. H. F.. 26 Michigan Cut Flower Exchange 28 Millang, August.... 48 Millang, Chas 49 Miller. J. W 57 Minneapolis Floral Co 33 Mitchell A Son 54 Moltz A Co 48 Moninger Co so Montgomery County Coal Co 69 Moore. Hentz A Nash 48 Morehead Mfg. Co.. 68 Morse A Co., C. C. 36 Muller, O. A 75 Munk Floral Co 50 Munson, H 72 Murphy, Wm 51 Murray, Samuel 34 Myer 32 National Floral Ribbon House .... 6 National Florists' Board of Trade.. 48 Natural Guano Co.. 73 Neidlnger, J. G 26 Newburys, The 34 Newman A Sons.... 32 New York Belting A Packing Co 67 Nicotine Mfg. Co... 72 NIessen Co., Leo... 24 Non-Breakable Flower Vase Co... 24 North Carolina Ever- green Co 29 Oberlln, T. J 63 OechsUn, F 65 Paducah Pott'y Co. 73 Palethorpe Co 66 Palmer A Son 32 Park Floral Co 35 Pennock-Meehan Co. 25 Perry's Hardy Plant Farm 38 Peters A Reed 73 Peterson, J. A...'.. 1 Peterson Nursery.., 53 Phlla. Cut Flower.. 47 Pierce Co., F. O 77 Plerson Co., F. R.. 68 Pleters-Wheeler Seed Co 36 Pikes Peak Flo. Co. 61 Pine Tree Silk Mills 20 Pittsburg Cut . Flower Co 61 Pittsburg Florists' • Bxohange 61 Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co 77 Plath, H 46 Poehlmann Bros. .21-55 Poll worth Co 35-45 Poulsen, D. T 38 Pritchard, J. N 28 Pulverized Manure.. 73 Purnell, W. Z 28 Quaker City Machine Works... 79 Raedleln Basket Co. 26 Kahn A Herbert 46 Randall Co 20 Randolph A McClements 77 Rawson A Co 39 Reed A Keller 49 Regan Ptg. House.. 51 Reld, Edw 47 Relnberg, Geo 50 Relnberg, P 3-56 Retail Florists 32-33-34-35 Revere Rubber Co.. 67 Rice A Co., M 6 Rice Bros 51 Rice Co., J. H 77 Rickards Bros 40 Robinson A Co 28 Rock Co., Wm 32 Roehrs Co 58 Rohnert, Waldo ... 36 Roland, Thos 59 Rolker A Sons 38 Rose Gardens 42 Rosemont Gardens.. 34 Rosens, B 49 Routzahn Seed Co.. 36 Rupp, J. F 42 Rusconi, D 42 Rnssin A Handing.. 49 Saltford, Geo 49 Sander 56 Schiller, J. L 42 Schlllo, Adam 80 Schlatter A Son 74 Schmidt, H 57 Sehmltz, F. W. 0.. 57 Schroeter, B .32 Schultbeis, Anton... 35 Schultheis, E. D... 59 Schiilz, Jacob 33 Scott, John 68 Sefton Mfg. Co 45 Sliarkey, John F... 32 Sharp. Partridge... 80 Sheridan, W. F 40 Sibson Rose Nur- series 46 Skldelsky A Irwin.. 39 Skinner Irrigation.. 76 Slinn, B. S 48 Smith, Henry 34 Smith, P. J 48 Smith A Co., E. D. 57 Smith Co., A. W... 32 Smith Co., W. A T. 52 Smith, Lineaweaver. 69 Smith Wholesale Floral Co 47 Smyth, W. J 32" Spokane Florist Co. 34 Springfield Floral Co 66 Standard Pump A Engine Co 78 State Nursery Co... 35 Stewart, E. E 39 Stewart, S. B 33 Stokes' Seed Store. 39 Stootboff Co., H. A. 66 Storrs A Harrison.. 54 Stumpp A Walter.41-66 Superior Machine A Boiler Works 70 Swanson, Aug. S... 34 Swanson's 84 Syracuse Pott'y Co. 73 Tallby A Son 34 Taylor Steam Spe- cialty Co 72 Teas A Son 63 Thompson Carnation 65 Thorburn A Co 43 Toledo Plate A Window Glass Co. 77 Tonseth Floral Co.. 34 Toole A Sons 43 Totty, C. H 65 Traendly A Schenck 49 U. S. Cut Flo. Co.. 60 U. S. Radiator Cor- poration 72 U. S. Nursery Co... 52 Van Grieken, L 38 Vaughan A Sperry.-4-50 Vesey, W. J. A M. S 65 Vlck A Hill Co 54 VIck's Sons, J 44 Vincent, Jr., & Sons Co 67-76 Virgin, U. J 34 Wagner Park Con- servatories 63 Want Advs 29 Ward A Co 30 Weber, V. H 83 Welland, John 84 Weiland A RIsch... 00 Wets A Schmidt 78 Welch Bros 60 Werthelmer Bros... 6 Whltsett Coal A Mining Co 60 Wlotor Broa. 00 Wild, Gilbert H 68 Wild Broa. Nnraerr Co 88 Wild Floral C* 68 Wiles, E. W 48 Wilks Mfg. Oe 71 Wilson, B. a 32 Windier, R. J 38 Winterson'a See4 Store ..:. 44 Wittboirt Co 31-35 Wolfskin. J. W 34 Woodruff A SoM... 88 Wood worth A Parker 08 Young, J. W 47 Young A Co., A. li. 40 Young A Sons Co... 84 Yuess Gardens Co.. 44 Zangen, O. T 42 Zech A Mann 50 Zvolanek, A. 0 43 There is Just One Best Pumping Engine for yonr vreenhoaae or ont- door Irrigratlon system. The enclne that will fnmlsh yon a reliable and steady power at all tlmea la the ■tandard Pumping ^^a^ripe This is the pnmping engine, the cost of operating which stops when yon stop water- ing. It furnishes rain for yonr cropa Jnat when they need it. Send for circahtra. BTAKDARD PUMP Si KNGin CO. 14 Mloblawi St.. Clevaland, OUlo Text Appearing After Image: Mention The Review when you write. MoneyTalks Onr machine can not talk, but it saves money. That ii saying a good bit. Remember the name AD- VANCS, for it means the highest quality of material and workmanship that latest type machinery and modem methods of manufacturing can produce. We make ventilating ma- chinery. Write for prices and cir- culars. The Advance Co., Richmond, Ind. Mention The Review when you write. Note About Images Please note that these images are extracted from scanned page images that may have been digitally enhanced for readability - coloration and appearance of these illustrations may not perfectly resemble the original work.

Title: Florists' review [microform] Identifier: 5205536_48_3 Year: 1912 (1910s) Authors: Subjects: Floriculture Publisher: Chicago : Florists' Pub. Co Contributing Library: University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Digitizing Sponsor: University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign View Book Page: Book Viewer About This Book: Catalog Entry View All Images: All Images From Book Click here to view book online to see this illustration in context in a browseable online version of this book. Text Appearing Before Image: The Florists^ Review Sbptejibku 1, 1"J21 Text Appearing After Image: A. Abby Ave. Glis 91 Acker's Fir. Shop... 89 Adgiite & Son 90 Advance Co 128 Akln'B Flo. Co 74 Alamcdii Grnlises... 89 Alexandria Florist.. 94 Alkemade & Son... 104 Allen. .1. K, 99 Allersma. H. W.... 84 Alpha Flo. Co..74-78-87 Alpha Florist 92 Am. Bulb Co 1 Am. Floral Shop 75 Am. Fir. Shop 80 Am. Ghs. Mfg. Co.. 150-151 Am. I^indscape School 98 Am. Window Glass. 125 Amling Co 30-31-56 Amundson Co 50 Andersen Specialty. 124 Anderson Grnhse.,.. 96 Anderson, S. A 74 AnBermiieller, G. H. 41 Anniivee Fir. Shop.. 93 Aphine Mfg. Co 130 Archer, G. S 62 Archer's Fir. Shop.. 82 Archins Floral Co... 75 Armacost & Co 55 Art Floral Co 81-95 Art Florist 95 Art Fir. Shop 77 Artindale & Son 119 Aschmann Bros 112 Aschmann, 0 113 Ashborne Goldfish... 64 Ashtabula Fl. Co... 90 Asman 84 Atchison Fir. Store. 89 Athletic Club First. 94 AtkiDK 96 Atlantic City Shop. 76 Atteaux & Co., Inc.131 Attica Floral Co 88 Audubon Nursery.. .111 Aull Bros. Co 46 Aurora Greenhouse. 86 Austin, H 103 Austin, J '74 Automatic Furnace. 122-125 Avenue Floral Co... 85 Avenue Fir. Shop... 86 Avondale Fl. Shop.. 87 Axell, J. A 58 B. Bader Co.. John 115 Hader & Co 107 Baer. Julius 89 Bailey, Harry 66 Baker Bros 79 Baker. W. J 43 Baker & Son 72 Ball, C. D 113 Ball Floral Co 88 Bancroft & Son 77 Barnard Co I Barnes, W. J 74 Barr & Co., B. F... 70 Barrows, H. H 113 Bassett & Washburn 8 Bath, John H 92 Baumgarten 83 Baum's 80 Baur Floral Co 79 Baur & 8teinkamp.ll5 Baur Window Glass. 125 Bauscher Bros 80 Bayersdorfer & Co.. 4a Beacon Florist 70 Heall Grnhs. Co 61 Beard Floral Co 84 Heaven, E. A 49 Becker's Cons 70 Beckert's Seed 1(M Bees, I>td 69 Belmont Fir. Shop.. 70 Bcmh Floral Co 84 Bentzen Floral Co.. 75 Berger Bros 4-2 Berger's Sons. Wm. "S Berkeley Florist.... 93 Berning, H. G 98 Bernstein, John L.. 79 Bertermann Bros. . . 8S Besancon & Co 78 Bester & Sons 81 Beyer Floral Shop.. SS Billings Flo. Co 90 Bills Floral Co 77 Bird & Son 127 Bissinger, J. A 84 Flackistone. Z. D.. 6S Blake & Son. B. S..l.''.2 Blake's 90 BluMaize B. Shop.. Hi Bobbink * Atkins..Ill Boston Box Co 44 Boston Florist 73 Boston's Fir. Store. 89 BoBwell. Gordon ... 79 Botanical Nursery.. 48 Bowe, M. A 73 Boyle & Damaud... 93 Brague & Son 48 Brnmley & Son 91 Braslan Co 103 Breitmeyer's Sons... 84 Brigham's Fl. Store 91 Bright Spot Ghse... 96 Brinkerhoff Ghses... 85 Broadway Florist .. 94 Broderlck. R. T 72 Brodrib, J. A 71 Brown, A. C 85 Brown Bag Filling Machine Co 108 Brown Bros. & Co.. 76 Brown Nurseries .. 76 Brown & Kennedy.. 95 Brownwood Flo. Co. 79 Brunger, C. A 93 Bruns, H. N 87-105 Bryan, A. J 112 Bucbbinder Bros.. 14-15 Budlong, J. A 34 Bunyard, A. T 73 Burlington Willow Ware 99 Burns, H. H 72 Burpee Co 102 Burr & Co Ill Buschurdt, Wm. F. .131 C. Cadillac Glass Co... 124 Caldwell, "Woodsman 50 California Flo. Co.. 66 California Florist... 93 Callahan, M. J 78 Callahan Co., T. J.. 129 Campbell Print. Co. 106 Ciipital City P. Co.. 82 Capitol Floral Co... 81 Caple, Walter W... 84 Carbone. Philip L., 70 Carek, P. G 90 Carolina Plr. Store. 81 Casey Florist Co 70 Casper Floral Co... 86 Central Floral Co... 84-96 Chandler' Flo.' do.'.. 74 Chapin Bros 92 Charleston Cut Flo. 82 Chicago Carton Co.. 46 Chgo. Flower Grow- ers' Assn 32-33 Chicago Papler- Mache Co 51 Cincinnati Cut Fir.. 98 City Floral Shop... 95 Clark, G. R 78 Clark Seed Co 102 Clarke, W. B 60-104 Clarke Bros 61-93 Clarke's Sons 73 Climax Mfg. Co 44 Clody's Fir. Shop... 86 Cobby's Fir. Shop.. 83 Coggan, S. W 84 Cokely's loi Cokal Stoker Corp..120 Coles' Fir. Shop 88 Coilins-Rhoades 79 Colonial Fir. Shop.. „ ■ 74-88 Colorado Seed Co 48 Columbia Fir. Co... 75 Conard & Jones 110 Congress Fir. Shop. 87 Connon Co 76 Oonstien, B. E 91 Coombs 71 Cottage Garden Nur. 58 Cotton the Florist.. 82 Cowan Bros. Co 88 Coy Seed Co 103 Crabb, A. F 84 Craig Co., R 1.3 Cramer Fir. Co 96 Crane & Hill 76 Cremer Florist 79 Crescent Garden.... 70 Criley Gmhses 77 Critcheli, C. E 49 Crouch, ('lins. W ,so Crowi Fern Co .^O Crump. Frank F 90 Cnip & Co sn Cunningham F. Shop. 7!> Curran & Co 12.'^ Currie & Co., A 83 D. n.inish Seed Imp...108 Banker 72 Parbee 61-9.5 Bards, Chas. A ".•? Barling's Shop 94 Baut Bros «,'-, Pa vis Co.. J. W. ... 12 Davis Flo. Co 88 Davis & Klshler 8t Day Co 72 Denver Wholesale... 99 Derr's Fir. Shop... 79 Derrick, Florist 72 Dethlefs, Wm 95 Diamond Basket Co. 101 Dlener Co., R 58 Dietsch Co., A 127 Dingley's 69 Dixon Floral Co 85 Domoto Bros 59 Donofrio Flo. Co 89 Dorner & Sons Co.. .114 Dostal-Wolters Shop. 94 Doswell's 88 Dreer, H. A 149-152 Drevon-Tegelaar ... 107 Drury, H. P 85 Dudley Sons Co 82 Duerr, Chas. A 91 Duluth Floral Co 92 Dunlop, John H 76 Dunn, Robert L .. 76 Durham Floral Co.. 81 Duro Paper Pro.... 44 E, Eble, Chas 85 Ecke, Paul 62 Edlefsen-Leidiger . . RS Edwards Floral Co. 76 Ehle, Fred G .56 Elche Floral Co 92 Elam Flower Store. 77 Elastlc-Lyke Co U7 Eldorado Fl. Co 89 Eldred Flower Shop. 94 Elias & Co 124 Elk Galax & Fern.. 50 Ellis Floral Co 88 El Paso Cam. Co... 85 Elverson Pottery 126 Engle Floral Co 91 Enid Floral Co 89 Enomoto & Co 00 Enterprise Fir. Co.. 84 Eppstein. Julius 95 Erne & Co 38 Espelin Flo. Co 96 Evans Co., John A..I'V Evenden Bros 79 Evenden's Sons 79 Ever Ready Fl. Pot. 98 Excell Laboratories.Ill Excelsior Gmhses... 75 Exotic Gardens 81 F. Fallon, Florist 82 Fallon Co., J. J..81-82 Fallon, John f2 Faust, Henry 1 112 Farquhar Co IH Feast, S.. Sc Sons... 81 Felton's Flowers 90 Felton's Fir. Shop.. 74 Fenrlch, Joseph 99 Fetters. B. A 84 Fischer, Rudolph,.. 60 Fisher & Bro 86 Fisher Governor Co. 120 Flick Floral Co 88 Floral Art Studio... 73 Floral Shop 79 Florists' Sup. Co..64-97 Florists' Sup. Hse.. 98 Flower Shop ...70-80 81-82-85-88-93 Flowershop, The.... 93 Foerster Co 37 Foley Mfg. Co 123 Forber. G. F 77 Ford. Frank H 81 Ford. M. C 99 I'orshnw. S. H 93 Fottler. Flske, Raw- son Co 103 Fox, Chas. Henry.. 7« Fox's. Inc S3 Franklin Park Flo.. 90 Fr,nser & Son 01 Freeixjrt Flo. Co 80 Frey, C. H 92 Frey & Frey 92 Frost. Chas 108 Fuchs, Henry 83 Furnlval & Son 84 Furrow & Co R9 Kntterm.nn, Chas. .. 99 nMnimaBo & Son... 70 Garden City Fl. Co. 90 Giirdiner Flo. Co... 77 Onrland Co 129 Gary Floral Co 88 Gnsser Co 91 Gatliff Fir. Garden. 89 Gause. G. R SS G:iy St. Fir. Co 90 Genor.il Bulb Co 109 Gcntomnn. H. A. ... S.'i Geny Bros ,S0 George, Inc 82 Gibbs Bros 70 Giblin & Co 123 Giles the Florist 79 Gillelt, E. G 49 Gimbel'B 83 Gleave's Fir. Shop. 94 Gloeckner. Wm. ... 72 Gloekler Co., B 97 Gnatt Co., Ove 99 Goetz Sons 84 Golden Moon Florist 92 Goldsboro Flo. Co. .. 81 Goldstein, 1 99 Goodbrad Floral Co. 80 (Jould & Co 78 Gove, Mrs. C. C 71 (iraham 80 Graham & Son 91 Grakelow. C. H 78 Gr. Forks Fl. Co... 95 Grandy 82 Green the Florist... 79 Grever, Wm. H 74 Grimm & Gorly 75 Groh, John 122 Grohe Co.. Fred 60 Groves Floral Co... 89 (Jrowers' Floral Co. 62 Grulich & Sons 76 Gude Bros. Co 68 Guliett & Sons 116 Gumey Grnhse. Co. 95 Guthrie-Liorenz Co. . 77 Habermehl's Sons .. 78 Haeger Flo. Co 80 Hall & Robinson 76 Hamilton Bros 49 Hiimmerschmidt & Clark 90 Hammond Co 82 Hammond Paint.127-131 Hanfling Co 99 Hannah & Son 79 Harbor Flo. Co 93 Harkett's Flo. Nur. 77 Harris Bros 78 Harris Mfg. Co 126 Harrison Pottery ..127 Hart. Geo. B 39-124 Hart, Inc., H 72 Hart & Vlck 104 Hasselbrtng 84 Hastings, Frank R.. 78 Haven Seed Co 103 Hayashi & Co 61 Hayashi Flo. Co 95 Hayes, James 89 Hayman Gnhse. Co. 82 Heacock Co., Jos... 113 Hecock Floral Co... 90 Heelas Fir. Store... 72 Heepe Co 90 HeinI & Son. J. G.. 88 Heinl & Sons. J 85 Heller & Co 108 Hembrelker & Cole. 85 Henderson. Lewis .. 92 Henderson & Co... 1-109 Henry Co., J 64 Hess & Swoboda... 92 Hews & Co 126 Highland Park Ghs. 87 Hill & Co.. Dave... 78 Hill Co.. B. O I Hill Co.. J. H 114 Hill Nursery Co 111 Hinde & Dauch 46 Hitchings & Co 128 Hognn & Evers 95 Hogewoning & Sons.109 Hollywood Fl. Shop. 94 Hollywood Gardens. 92 Holm & Olson 92 Holton & Hunkel... 98 Honaker the Florist. 83 Hoover Lab'atories.in2 Hopper's Oreenhse.. 96 Horan & Son 71 Homadny Greenhse. 89 Houghton Gomey... 70 Howard Rose Co 56 Howard & Smith... 94 Humboldt Bvergrn.. .56 Humphrey, C. L 90 Hurff, E. F 103 Huscroft's Fl. Shop. 91 Tckes Braun 126 Ideal Fir. Shop 79 Idle Hour Floral Co. 81 Idlewild Gnhse 80 Illinois Malleable. ..120 lonin Pottery Co.. .120 Irwin. Romnn J....1-5 Tsherwood Grnhse... 75 Ililia. B. S 78 J. Jackson Fl. Shop... 80 J.ickson & Perkins..Ill Jaeger & Son.59-95129 .Tiihn. H. 11 73 James & Son '72 Johnson Basket Co..101 Johnson & Cbronis.. 87 Johnson & Jensen... 87 Johnson. J. L 85 Johnson's Grilhses.. 80 Johnston, Mrs. Stella 89 Johnston, A. W 72 Johnston Bros 71 Johnston & Co 71 Johnston, Mary .... 81 Johnston's Fl. Shop. 91 .lointless Fire Brick.121 Joliet Floral Co 85 Jones. Percy 97 Jones-Russell Co.... 91 Joseph, B. M 95 Joseph's, Joseph.... 78 Joy Floral Co 80-114 X. Kahler Pottery Co.. 126 Kan. City Cut Fl... 12 Kasting Co I-III Keheley, J. T 80 Keller Co., John 83 Keller Sons, J. B... 72 Keller Pottery Co.. 126 Kelly's Gmhses 88 Kelway & Son 106 Kemble's Flowers... 77 Kennedy & Sons.... 76 Kennicott Bros. Co. 40 Kent Bros 91 Kerr. R. C 79 Kervan Co 95 Kiger, N 91 Kimberllu Seed Co. 103 Kinder & Bros., S. . 71 King Cons. Co 119 King Florist, The.. 76 Kinsman. A. N 92 Kirclmer's Flowers. 71 Klrkwood PI. Co... 77 Knees & Son 86 Koppelman, Jos. ... 99 KottmlUer, A 73 Kramer the Florist. 74 Kramer & Son 77 Kranz, C 77 Kroeschell Bros 118 Kruchten, John, Co. 97 Krueger Co., C. F.. 78 Krug Floral Co 85 Kuehn, C. A 35-41-64-122 Kuhl. G. A 87 Kusik & Co 98 L, La Crosse Floral Co. 82 Lagarde & Vander- voort 104 Lakeview Rose Gdn. 72 L. A. Floral Co 54 I.iamboume, Ernest.. 96 Lane. Geo. F 71 Lang Floral Co 79 Lange, A 87 Langers Flo. Co.... 89 Langley, R. E 81 T..angohr. M 96 Lankford. W. A 82 I.ohman Fl. Shop... 92 Ijohr. Wm. S 86 Lord's Fir. Room... 89 I»rd & Bumham. 11-121 liOS Robles Nursery. 56 I>ouisp Flower Shop. 08 Loveridge, Chas.... 85 liowe's Fir. Shop. .. 95 Lubllner 83 Lndwig, E. C, Co.. 78 K. McCallum Co 40 McCarron, Miss .... 82 McClements 78 McClenahan Ghses. . 64 McClure-Coffman.... 82 McCray Refrigerator 97 McElroy, T. P 95 McHutchison & Co.. 103 McKenna. Ltd. .,. . . 70 MncnifT Co., Inc.'... 11 McRae-Jenkinson .. 79 Macaw Bros 115 Madison St. Fir 80 Madison .Seed Co.. . . R"? Majestic Floral Co. . 79 Malandre Bros 72 Mangel, John 87 Marion Floral Co... 88 Marshall, Geo. W.. 89 Martin Grate Co 122 Martin & Forbes... 93 Martins, The 89 Marvin, Ira G 78 Mary Florist 69 Mas-Art Basket 60 Massmann 76 Matheson, Hugh H. .117 MatthewsoD, J. £.83-114 .Mau. Otto F 86 Mauir Floral Co 96 Maxwell & Co 89 May. Harry 0 76 Mead-Suydam Co 128 Meconi, Paul 99 Meehan, Chas. B... 43 Meier-Schroeder Co.. 82 Meikel & Warner... 88 Melnhart, J. B 75 Menand, H. L 72 Merrill, Alice B 70 Metairie Ridge Nur. 85 Metropolitan Mate- rial Co 127-129 Metz & Bateman... 90 Meyer, Adolph 73 Michal. John A 86 Michell Co., H. P...104 Michigan Cut Fir... 48 Middlemount Nurs.. 81 Miles Co 82 Miller, A. L 115 Miller, H. T 90 Miller Floral Co.. .60-96 Miller Bros. Co 108 Miller & Son 80 Mills the Florist... 81 Minge Floral Co 80 Mission Fir. Shoppe 90 Missouri Pottery 127 Moninger Co IV Mono Service Co 43 Montgomery Gnhse.. 77 Morehead Mfg. Co.. 121 Morgenroth, W 81 Morse & Beals 70 MosmiUer, Frank .. 82 Moss, Chas. A 81 Mountain View Flo. 63 Muehlebach Fl. Shop 74 Muir, John T 87 MuUanphy 78 Munk Floral Co 90 Munson, H 123 Murata & Co 64 Murdoch, W. A 79 Murphy Co 49 Murray, Samuel .... 74 Murray & Co 74 H. Nanz Floral Co 83 Natl. Bulb Farms..106 National Florist 96 Navlet Co 94 Nebel Mfg. Co 131 Neidlnger, J. G 43 Neil Flower Shop... 90 Neilsen. Inc., N 92 Neubeck, L. H 74 Newell, A 74 Newton Floral Co.. 10 N. Y. Floral Co 72 New York Supply.. 99 Nicotine Mfg. Co... 130 Nielsen, Knud 48-50 Niessen Co., Leo... 42 Noll Floral Co .18 Nordwall. E. E 77 Norfolk Floral Co. . 92 Northern Fern Co. . ,50 Norton Florist 93 0. Obertln. P. N 82 O'Connell Fir. Shop. 74 Oelschig ft Son 80 OlTerle. Chas. G 79 Ohio Plate Glass...124 Okkerse & Son 72 Oklahoma Flo. Co.. 89 O'Leary Florist 87 Olsson Co., H. L... 62 Onarga Nursery ....110 Opellka PI. Co 80 Oppenheim, Manuel. 72 Oppermann. Anton.. 75 Orange BI'm Shop.. 94 Orchard Co lOO Orchid. The 94 Oriental Goldfish Co. 97 Ormiston. R. B... . 70 Ostertag Bros 75 Otis, Chas, D R5 Ottawa Fl. Shop. . . 80 Owosso Floral Co.. 84 P. Pacific Nurseries. ... 62 Paducah Pottery 127 Palmer. Inc., F. E.. 70 Palmer, Wm 86 [CONCLUDED ON PAGE 4.] Note About Images Please note that these images are extracted from scanned page images that may have been digitally enhanced for readability - coloration and appearance of these illustrations may not perfectly resemble the original work.

Title: Florists' review [microform] Identifier: 5205536_23_1 Year: (s) Authors: Subjects: Floriculture Publisher: Chicago : Florists' Pub. Co Contributing Library: University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Digitizing Sponsor: University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign View Book Page: Book Viewer About This Book: Catalog Entry View All Images: All Images From Book Click here to view book online to see this illustration in context in a browseable online version of this book. Text Appearing Before Image: :7!x:'^ Xut: %y' 78 The Weekly Florists' Review* Decbubeb 3, 1908. INDEX TO ADVERTISERS. Advance Co 77 Advance Floral Co. 60 Aggeler & Musser Seed Co 48 Allen, P. 1 29 American Blower Co 72 American Spawn... 44 Amllng, E. 0 17 Anderson Floral Co. 45 Anderson Mfg. Co.. 73 Andorra Nurseries.. 50 Aschmann, G 61 Atlanta Floral Co.. 46 Augspurger & Sons. 56 Austin, H 30 Bader, John 59 Baer, Julius 47 Bagley Pottery Co. 76 Baker, W. J 39 Baldwin, A. J 59 Ball, C. D 39 Barl^er & Co., F. C. 29 Barnard Co., W. W. 1 Barnett & Co 70 Bassett & Wash- burn 20-52 Bassett's Floral Gardens 48 Bassett, J. M 50 Baumann & Co.... 2o Baur & Smith 58 Baur Floral Co 1 Baur Window Glass Co 77 Bayersdorfer & Co. 25 Beaven. E. A 28 Beclcert, W. C 37 Bedfordshire Seed Co 33 Benelce, J. J 46 Bennett, C. A. ;i.s Benthey-Coatsworth 42 Berclimans Co 56 Berger & Co 38 Berger Bros 25-39 Berlce, G. H 46 Bernheimer, E 39 Bernlng, H. G 30' Bertermann Bros... 47 Blind & Bros 46 Bloom, J. S 51 Bobblnic & Atkins.. 56-59 Boddington, A. T.. 1-34-35-38 Bonnet & Blake 41 Bonnot Bros 41 Bowe, M. A 45 Brague, L. B 28 Brant, S. D 54 Breltmeyer's Sons.. 46 Bridgeman's Seed Warehouse 37 Brown, A. C 46 Brown Seed Co 82 Bruns, H. N 88 Budlong, J. A 42 Buffalo Cut Flower Co 40 Burnett Bros 38 Burpee & Co 32 Byer Bros 66 Caldwell, C. W 30 Caldwell Co.. W. E. 78 Caiawell The Woods- man Dec. Co 29 California Carnation Co 40 Camp Conduit Co.. 75 Carpenter & Co.... 73 Carrlllo ft Baldwin. SO Chicago Carnation Co. 1 Cbllds, John Lewis. 37 Clark Seed Co 32 Clark, Wm 31 Clarke Bros 46 Clarke's Sons 47 Classified Advs. ... 64 Cleary. Jas. H 46 Cleary's Horticul- tural Co 37 Cleveland Cut Flow- er Co 46 Clinton Falls Green- houses 47 Cockcroft, J. D 51 Cohn & Co 30 Collingdale Grbses.. 53 Conard & Jones 56 Condie-Neale Glass Co 77 Converse Gnhses... 69 Conwell, H. E 28 Costich, Gilbert ... 63 Cotsonas & Co 40 Cowee, W. J 74 Craig Co., R 58 Craig. Wm. P 30 Crawbnck, H. R... 40 Critchell, C. E...30-43 Cross. Ell 55 Crowl Fern Co 30 Crura, D. S 30 Currle Bros. Co 29 CuRhman Gladiolus. 37 Dallas Floral Co... 45 Darrow. H. F aS Davis & Co.. R. R. rA Davis Co.. John 72 Detroit Cut Flower Supply House ... 4.^ Dletsoh Co., A 80 Dlller. Caskey & Keen .«»0 Dillon. J. L 62 Dlngee & Conard.. 37 Uorner &, Sons Co.. 53 Dorrance, BeuJ. ... 65 Drake Point Green- houses 54 Dreer, H. A 67-77 Drumm Seed & Floral Co 46 Duer, J. K 46 Uunlop, John H.... 45 Edwards Folding Box Co 76 Ehret, Fred 45 Eicbbolz, Henry ... 54 Eisele, C 62 Electric Hose & Rubber Co 69 Elk Park Floral Co. 28 Ever Ready Flower Pot Cover Co 39 Exotic Nurseries... 49 Eyres, H. G 46 Fairmonts Coal Co.. 70 Fellouris, J. J 41 Finger, W. A 35 Flake Seed Co 37 Florists' Exchange.. 40 Florists' Hail Assn. 70 Foley, J. J 40 Foley Mfg. Co 79 Ford Bros 41 Fox, C. H 26-47 Froment, H. E 40 Galvln, Inc., Thos.. 47 Garland Co 74 Garland Florists' Exchange 30 Geller Florist Co... 41 Geny Bros 45 'Glblln & Co 73 GiUett & Ohmer... 43 Girvln, H. H 75 Glen Mary Fish Farms 70 Golden West Nursery 40 Gordon-Van Tine Co. 74 Grand Floral Co 45 Grand Rapids Greenhouse Co.... 60 Greater N. Y. Flo- rist Assn 40 Grobe, Fred 49 Groves, Robt 29 Growers' Cut Flower Co 40 Gude Bros. Co 47 Gunther Bros 41 Gtittman, A. J 41 Hagenburger Co.... 60 Hansen, Mrs. M. A. 45 Harrington Co 47 Hart, Geo. B 40 Hartmann & Co., H. 33 Heacock Co., Jos.. 62 Helnl, Geo. A 46 Helnl & Son, J. G. 45 Herbert & Son, D.. 37 Herrmann, A 41 Hess & Swoboda... 46 Hews & Co.. A. H. 76 Hielscher, Wm. E.. 4 Hill, D. 80 HiU Co., E. G 1 Hlppard, E 73-74 Hitchcock, E. H... 28 Hodges. R. L 80 Hoffman, S 47 Hoffmeir, H. J 46 Holder. G. A 28 Hollcraft, M. E 46 Holton & Hunkel... 25 Hooker Co.. H. M.. 77 Horticultural Ad- vertiser 70 Horticultural Print- ing Co 76 Hubbard Co., T. S. 60 Hunt. B. H 21-75 IlliaoiB Heater & Mfg. Co 76 Illinois Malleable Iron Co 72 Ionia Potterv Co... 76 Iowa Floral Co 45 IsbeU & Co., S. M. 32 Ivey & Son 46 Jackson & Perkins. 28-60 Jacksonville Floral Co 47 Jacobs & Sons, S.. 77 .Tawort Co.. O. J... 69 .Tensen & Dekeraa.. 63 .Johnson Seed Co... 3.5 .Johnson's. Ltd. ... 33 Johnston Heat'g Co. 73 Jones, H. T 60 Jones, P 42 Joy Floral Co 46 Kastlng Co 1 Keller Pottery Co.. 76 Kellogg, Geo. M... 46 Kenney, H 41 Kennlcott Bros. ... 2 Kepner. J. A 47 Klft, Robt 27 King Construction.. 80 Kirkeby & Gande- strup 44 Knopf Floral Co... 54 Koenig Coal Co 70 Komitsch & Junge. .55 Kopelman & Co.... 39 Kramer & Son...M-7f. Kramer. F. H 47 Kroeschell Bros. .. 71 Krucbten & Co 42 Kuebler, Wm 40 Kuehn, C. A 89 Kuhl, Geo. A 66 Lager & Hurrell... 66 Laugstadter, A. ... 40 Las Palmas Green- houses 49 Lecakes & Co 40 Leedle Floral Co... 60 Leedle Rosary .... 40 Leonard Seed Co... 32 Lllley & Upton 39 Lilly Co 32 Lion & Co 4 Littlefleld & Wyman 50 Livingston Seed 26-44-46 Longren, A. F 65 Loomls Carnation Co 48 Lord & Burnham... 74 Louisiana Red Cypress Co 79 Lovell, E. 0 45 Lucas & Co., John. 75 Ludemann, F 49 McCallum Co 43 McConnell, Alex. .. 45 McCray Refrigera- te Co 74 McCrea & Co 73 McCullougb's Sons.. 43 McKellar, Chas. ... 24 McKenna & Sons... 47 McKlsslck & Bros.. 22 McManus, Jas 40 McMorran & Co 74 Martin Grate Co... 71 Marvin, Ira G 45 Masur, S 46 Mathews, Wm. ... 76 May & Co., L. L... 47 Meehan, C. E 37 Melne & Noss 70 Mette, Henry 33 Meyers, J. G' 29 Mlchell Co., H. F.. 23 Michigan Cut Flower Exchange 29 MiUang, Frank ... 40 Mlllang Bros 41 Miller, A. L 66 Miller, E. S 37 Minneapolis Floral Co 45 Monarch Coal Co... 70 Moninger Co 77 Moon Co., W. H... 60 Moore, J. L 37 Moore, Hentz & Nash 40 Moore-Llvingston Co 26 Morebead Mfg. Co.. 71 Morse & Co., C. C. 32 Mosley, H. B 28 Munk Floral Co 43 Murdoch & Co 43 Murray, Samuel ... 46 Muskogee Carnation Co 42 Myer 46 National Floral Ribbon House ... 4 National Florists' Board of Trade... 40 Natural Guano Co. 74 Neidinger, J. G 4 Nelson & Co.. J. A. 66 New England Nurseries 60 Newman & Sons... 45 Newman Floral Co. 46 Niessen Co., Leo... 22 Nluffer, C. M 61 North Carolina Evergreen Co. ... 30 Oberlln, T. J 37 Oecbslin, F 54 Paducab Potfy Co. 76 Palethorpe Co 75 Palmer & Son 47 Park Floral Co 47 Parker Mfg. Co 71 Payne, J. A 80 Pennock-Meehan Co. 23 Perry, Basil 30 Peters & Reed Pottery Co 76 Peterson, J. A 1 Peterson Nurs 50 Phila. Cut Flower. 39 Pierce Seed Co 32 Pierson Co., F. R.. 49 Plerson U-Bar Co.. 80 Pieters Seed Co 32 Pike's Peak Flo. Co. 40 Pine Tree Silk. Mills 26 Pittsburg Cut Flower Co. 27-43 Pittsburg Florists' Exchange 43 Pittsburg Plate Glass Co 77 Poehlmann Bros.. 19-51 Poilwortb Co. .. .45-75 Pulverized Manure. 78 Pumell, W. Z 28 Quaker City Machine Co 79 Rahn & Herbert... 49 Randall Co 18-53 Randolph & McClementB 77 Rawson & Co 35-38 Reed & Keller 40 Regan Ptg. House. 70 Reid, Edw 80 Reimers, M. D 46 Relnberg, Geu. . .42-55 Relnberg, P 3 Retail Florists.45-46-47 Renter & Son, S. J. 64 Revere Rubber Co. 69 Rice Bros 42 Rice & Co., M 4 Rickards Bros 37 Robinson & Co 27 Rock Co., Wm. L. 45 Roehrs Co 55-66 Rohnert, Waldo .. 32 Roland, Thomas ... 69 Rolker & Sons 33 Rosens, B 40 Rudd, W. N 63 Rupp, J. F 37 Rusconi, D .SS Russln & Hanfiing. 41 Buxton Floral & Nursery Co 50 Ryerson, U. C 75 ttaltford, Geo 41 Sanderson, H. M... 44 Sanitary District of Chicago 31 Scharff Bros 59 Schelden & Scboos. 53 Schllder Bros 32 Schillo, Adam 79 Schlatter & Son 75 Schmltz, F. W. O. 37 Schrelner, N. C 41 Schroeter, B 45 Scbultbels, Anton.. 64 Scbulz, Jacob 46 Schumacher & Kessler 41 Scranton Florist Supply Co 59 Seligman & Co 40 Shaffer, Geo. C 46 Sharp, Partridge... 80 Shaw Fern Co 30 Shearer & Son 46 Sheridan, W. F 41 Sbibley-Mann Co... 48 Shinn, Warren .... 44 Silliman & Co 29 Skidelsky & Irwin Co 38 Skinner Irrigation Co 44 Slinn, B. S 41 Smith, Henry 45 Smith, Wm. C 60 Smith & Bros 69 Smith & Co., E. D. 36 Smith Co., W. & T. 60 Smith, Llneweaver & Co 70 Smith Wholesale Floral Co 39 Smyth, W. J 43 Spokane Florist Co. 4« Standard Plate Glass Co 77 Standard Pump & Engine Co 70 Stewart, E. E 38 Stewart, S. B 45 Stokes' Seed Store. 44 Stootbotr Co., H. A. 75 Storrs & Harrison. 58 Stumpp &W^ter.34-75 Sunlight Double Glass Sash Co... 74 Superior Machine & Boiler Works ... 31 Swanson, Aug. S... 45 Swanson's 46 Syracuse Pott'y Co. 76 Tanoi, Rihachiro .. US Teas Co., E. Y 50 Thompson & Morgan 33 Thompson Carnation Co 54 Thorburn & Co 35 Toledo Plate & Window Glass Co. 77 Totty, C. H 56 Traendly & Schenck 41 Ullrich's Gr'nhouses 46 U. S. Cut Flo. Co. 42 U. 8. Heater Co... 73 U. S. Nursery Co.. 52 Van Houtte Pere L. 33 Varela, F. C 33 Vaughan & 8perry.2-42 Vesey, W. J. A M. S 62 Vick & Hill Co 56 Vick's Sons, J 36 Vincent Jr. & Sons 62 Virgin, U. J 40 Von Reider, J. J... 46 Vredenburg & Co.. 50 Waban Rose Con- servatories 50 Wagner Park Con- servatories M Wanoka Gt'nbouses 55 Want Advs 30 Watauga Evergreen Co 29 Weber, F. C 45 Weber, F. H 47 Weiland, John 46 Wetland & Olinger. 43 Weiland & Rlscli... 42 Wels & Schmidt Pottery Co 76 Welch Bros 42 Wertlieliuer Bros... 4 Wheeler Floral Co. 45 WhUldln. Pottery Co 76 White Bros 54 Whltton & Sons... 62 Wlboltt, R 33 Wietbr Bros 42 Wllks Mfg. Co 73 Williams, H. B 35 Wnilford & Co.. 29 Wilson, Misses 39 Wilson, R. G .45 Wilson Plant Oil & Fertilizer Co. ... 75 Winterson Co 2 Wittbold Co 45-60 Wltterstaetter, B.. 65 Wolfskin, J. W 46 Woodrow, S. A..... 41 Yokohama Nursery Co 36 Young, John 40 Young, J. W 39 Young & Co 41 Young & Nugent... 47 Young & Sons Co.. 46 Yuess Gardens Co.. 65 Zanesville Stone- ware Co 24 Zangen, O. V 36-41 Zech & Mann 42 Zvolanek, A. C 87 wm MANURES Dried, screened and packed in bags of 100 lbs. each. PULVERIZED SHEEP MANURE .PURE-UNIFORM-RELIABLE A strong and quick acting ma- nure, highly recommended for carnations and chrysanthemums. SHREDDED CAHLE MANURE Easy to Handle and Apply stronger and better in every way than rough manure. Lasts much longer on the benches. Unequaled for mulching and feeding roses, liquid manuring and mixing with bench and potting soil. Used by all the largest growers. Ask your supply man or write UB for circulars and prices. •••THE««« Polverized Manure Co. 33 Union Stock Yarks CHICAGO Mention The Review when you write. CALDWELL TANKS of Galvanixed Steel are ased everywhere. Sixes up to 1200gallon* canbe snipped setup at imall cost for ireignt. These Unks are strong, tight and durable. Cost less than wood tanks. Ask for illustrated catalogue and delivered prices. W. E.Caldwell Co., Ineorporstod, LoalsTiUe, Kj. TANKS (Steel, Wood, Galvanized) TOWERS, WindmlUa, Pnmpa, Gas EnBin^** Mention The Review when you write. I W0I7LO rather miss three good meals than miss one copy of the Bkvixw.—E. Point, Leipsic, O. Ths Bevixw is brimful of good things and we obtain more information from it than from all other papers.—^W. H. Morton, Hillsboro, Ore. Text Appearing After Image: Note About Images Please note that these images are extracted from scanned page images that may have been digitally enhanced for readability - coloration and appearance of these illustrations may not perfectly resemble the original work.

Title: Florists' review [microform] Identifier: 5205536_35_1 Year: 1912 (1910s) Authors: Subjects: Floriculture Publisher: Chicago : Florists' Pub. Co Contributing Library: University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Digitizing Sponsor: University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign View Book Page: Book Viewer About This Book: Catalog Entry View All Images: All Images From Book Click here to view book online to see this illustration in context in a browseable online version of this book. Text Appearing Before Image: WJf "fli I mrn^^-^mfi^ m^tmi^.:A,^ > ■-! The Florists' Review Januabx 14, 1015. ^GP*^ ndex to the /Adverlisemeiils J^Oi^ i^)>. ▲. Advance Co 104 Albert & Davidson.. 85 Allen. Florist ...... 43 Allen, J. K 67 Alpha Floral Co 52 Amerlcao Spawn Co. 61 Ameriran Window Glass Co »1 Amllng Co 23 Anderson, S. A 44 Angermueller, G. H. 30 Apelt Armadillo Co. 30 Aphlne MfK. Co 80 Arcade Floral Shop. 46 Archias Floral Co... 40 Archlas Seed Store.. 56 Arnold, A. A 33 Arnowltz, M 67 Aschmann, G 83 Ascbmann Bros 83 Atlas Floor Co 28 Auburndale Goldfish 32 Augspurger & Sons. 83 Aurora Grhse. Co... 52 Autocar Co II Ayres Co 60 B. Bader Co., John 81 Badgley, Riedel & Meyer 66 Bailey, Harry tS) Baker, C. 1 46 Baker, W. J 37 Ball. C. D 83 Balsley, Harry 86 Hamard Co I Barr & Co., B. P. .. 44 Bassett & Washburn 31 Bassett's Gardens.. 70 Baumann & Co 31 Baumer, A. R 47 Baur Floral Co 93 Baur & Steinkamp.. 78 Baur Window Glass. 91 Bauscher, John 52 Bayersdorfer & Co.. .'i7 Beall Grnhse. Co... 70 Beaven, E. A 38 Becker, Wm., Jr 55 Bemb Floral Co 42 Beneke, J. J 40 Benthey, F. J 65 Berger Bros 34 Berger ft Co 50 Berke. 0. H 44 Beming, H 63 Bertermann Bros... 47 Beyer, Chas 49 Beyer Floral Co 47 Blacklstone, K. D... 48 Blue Ridge Evergreen Co 38 Bobblnk & Atkins... 73 Boddlngton I Bolgiano & Son 55 Bonnet & Blake 67 Bonnot Bros 66 Boston Cut Flower Co 43 Boston Florist 4r> Bowe. M. A 4o Boyle ft Darnaud... 50 Bragg. Ross 61 Brague ft Son 38 Bramley & Son 48 Brantley. S. S 38 Braslan Co 54 Breltmeyer Floral.. 71 Breltmeyer's Sons.. 42 Brooklyn Wholesale Cut Flower Co 67 Brown, A. C 52 Brown Bros. & Co.. 50 Brown Seed Co., A. J 55 Bruns, H. N 60 Bryan, A. J 80 Buchanan. T. A.... 38 Buchblnder Bros.... 37 Buckbce, H. W 52 Budlong, J. A 65 Bunyard. A. T 45 Burnett Bros 56 Burpee & Co 54 Burt. A. J 60 0. Caldwell Co.. W. E. 93 Caldwell The Woods- man Co 39 California Evergreen Co 71 California Florist... 50 Camp Conduit Co III Carbone, Philip L.. . 43 Carter's Tested Seeds 58 Carolina Floral Store 46 Carroll. M. M 59 Cass. W. ft T 44 Champlln. M. P 44 Chapin Bros 51 Charleston Cut Flo.. 46 Chkago Carnation.. 24 Chicago Feed & Fer- tilizer Co 89 Chicago Flower Growers' Ass'n... 1 Chllds. John Lewis. 68 Cincinnati Cut Flower Exchange. 64 Clark. G. R 44 Clark Seed Co 64 Clarke Bros 60 Clarke's Sons 45 Classified Advs 94 Cleveland Cut Fl'r.. 48 Climax Mfg. Co 32 Cllngendaal Nursery 56 Coggan. S. W 42 Cokely, B. E. & J. T. 57-78 Colonial Flower Shop 43 Comlev. Henry B... 43 Conard 4 Jones 73 Consolidated Ever- green Co 38 Coombs 43 Cottage Gardens Co. 76 Cowee. W. J 32 Coy Seed Co 54 Coyle. James 68 Craig Co.. R 83 Crawbuck, H. R 67 Criley* O. M. P 51 Critchell. C. E 39 Crouch. Chas. W... 47 Crowl Fern Co 39 Crum & Co 39 Crnmp. Frank F 43 Currier Bulb Co 70 I>. Dallas Floral Co 42 Tanker. Fred A 44 Darbee, Mrs. R. E.. 50-71 Pards. Chas. A 44 Darling's Fl'r Shop. 60 De Buck, John 82 Delgado Q., Fran- cisco 82 De Nave. Paul 63 Denton Floral Co... 42 Denver Wholesale Florists' Co 66 Detroit Nicotine Co. 89 Dietsch Co.. A 90 Dlller. Caskey & Keen 104 Dillon. J. L 80 Dobbs & Son 44 Pomoto Bros 71 Dorner & Sons Co... 77 Dreer. H. A.01-79-01-93 Drury. H. F 62 Dudley. C. P 46 Dudley* Sons. J. W. 46 Duerr, Chas. A 48 Dulnth Floral Co 61 Duulop. John H 50 £. Eadle Co.. James... 48 Edwards Box Co 32 Edwards Flo. Hall.. 44 Ehle. Fred G 69 Elastlc-Lyke Co 91 Elk Galax & Fern Co 38 Elverson Pottery.... 86 Erne & Klingel 26 1 vans Co.. J. A IV Evenden Bros 53 Ever-Ready Flower Pot Cover Co 33 Exotic Nurseries 69 r. Farmers & Florists P'ertillzer Co 88 Feast & Sons 46 Fellourls. J. J 67 Fiedler & Co 46 Fischer Bros 52 Fisher. Peter 74 Fish Seed Co 54 Flower Growers' Corporation 64 Flower Shop 43 »)ley Co 90 Ford. M. C 66 Ford. Wm. P 60 Ford & Kendig Co.. 85 Forestdale Flower Shop 42 Fortunes. A. L 39 Fottler. FIske, Raw- son Co 58-61 Fowler. Mrs. L. P.. 46 Franzen. F. 0 60 Frauesfelder. C 52 Freeman, Mrs. J. B. 48 Freeman Orchid Co. 82 Freeport Floral Co.. 52 Frey. C. H 61 Frey & Frey 51 Text Appearing After Image: CAZTON BUILDING 508 South Dearborn Street CHICAGO IT is impossible to sfuarantee the insertion, discontinu- ance or alteration of any advertisement unless instruc- tions are received by 5 p. m. TUESDAY. Friedman, O. J 62 Frltz-Taber Mfg. Co. 83 Froment, H. E 66 Frost, Chas 61 Furrow & Co 49 O. Gage Co., Inc., H. N. 68 Galvln, Inc.. Thos.. 45 Garden City Sand...Ill Gardens of Avon... 50 Gary Floral Co 47 Gasser Co 48 Geny Bros 47 German Floral Co... 70 German-American Mfg. Co 30 Glblln ft Co 84 Gloekler Co 37 GoetB Sons 42-60 Gove. The Florist... 43 Graham & Son 48 Grandy 46 Greene. Harvey B.. 43 Grimm & Gorly 49 Grohe. Fred 69 Growers' Cut Flower 67 Gude Bros. Co 48 (Junther Bros 66 Guttman & Raynor. CO H. Habermehl's Sons... 53 Haeger Brick & Tile. 88 Hall Association 89 Hammond Co 46 Hauschlld & Co 67 Hart, Geo. B &5 Hathaway, W. W.. 43 Haury & Sons 47 Haven Seed Co 64 Hayman Grhse. Co.. 46 Heacock Co., Jos... 82 Heckenkamp, Jr., F. W 52 Heinl & Sons, J 52 Ileinl & Son. J. G... 47 Ileiss Co 48 Ileller & Co., W. C. 55 Hendee Bros 70 Henderson, Lewis... 51 Henderson & Co.... 59 Herrmann, A 67 Hess & Swoboda 51 Hews & Co., A. H.. 88 H'lflneer Bros 88 Hill Floral Co 47 Hill. E. G I Hill Nurserv Co 73 Hillside Floral Shop 44 Hinchllffe. Mrs. J. T. 51 Hltchlngs & Co 92 Hoerber Bros 65 Hoffmelster Floral.. 04 Hogan. Kooyman... 71 Holden Floral Co... 70 Ilollcraft. M. E 49 Hollywood Gardens. 60 Holm & Olson 61 Holton & Hunkpl... 63 Howard & Smith... 60 Howard's Montopolis Nursery 57 Huddart Floral Co.. 40 Humfeld. C 75 Hunkel Co.. O. H... 61 Huntington Beach Nursery 71 HurfT. E. F 55 Iluscroft, G. L 48 Ickes-Braun Mill Co. 90 Idle Hour Nurseries. 46 Idlcwild Greenhses.. 47 Igoe Bros 92 Illinois Malleable... 84 III. Pipe & Mfg. Co. 84 Internat'l Nurseries. 73 Ionia Pottery Co 86 Irvine. R. A 78 Isbell & Co., S. M.. 64 J. Jackson & Perkins.. 72-81 Jacobs & Sons Ill Jahn. H. H 45 Johnson, J. L 52 Johns Creek Ever- green Co .38 .Johnson Seed Co 58 Johnston Bros 43 Johnston & Co 43 Johnston Heat'g Co. 85 .Tones Co.. M. D 93 Jones-Russell Co.... 48 Jonkheer & Sons.... 56 Joseph. B. M 60 Joy Floral Co 47 K. Kallsch Bros 49 Kastlng Co I Keenan & Co 62 Keller 47 Keller, John A 47 Keller & Son 88 Keller Sons. J. B... 44 Keller Pottery Co... 86 Kellogg Flower Co.. 49 Kelway & Son 56 Kemble. I. 0 51 Kennicott Bros 27 Kent Bros 48 Kentia Nurseries... 69 Kentucky Tobacco Pro. Co 89 Kervan Co 67 Kessler. Wm 66 KIley 42 Klmberlin Seed Co.. 54 King Construction. .Ill Kllmmer's Gmbses. 62 Knoble Bros 48 Knull Flo. Co 46 Kohr, A. F 86 Komada Bros 64 Kottmlller. A 45 Kramer & Son 51 Kroeschell Bros 85 Kruchten, John 65 Kuebler, Wm 67 Kuehn. C. A 63 Kuiil, Geo. A 52-81 Kusik & Co 64 Kyle & Foerster 65 Kyrk. Louis H 64 L. L. A. Floral Co 68 LaCrosse Floral Co.. 51 Lang Floral Co 42 Lange. H. F. A 43 Langhlin Seed Co... 54 I aver. J. V 44 Lawrence Floral Co. 46 Lecakes 66 I.erhner Bros 56 I-oedle Floral Co 78 Leistner, Oscar 28 Lemon & Co 47 Lemon Oil Co 80 Leonard Seed Co.... 54 Lllley. C. Baden.... «0 LIneaweaver & Co., H. H 84 Llppman, E. A 90 LiviugHton Seed 48 Llewellyn 44 Lockland Lbr. Co III Loechner & Co 60 Logan Pottery Co... 86 Loomls Carnation Co. 69 London Flower Shop 53 Lord & Burnham 93 Lord's Flower Room 40 Lovett. J. T 72 Ludwlg. E. C 53 M. McAdam, J. B 42 McCallum Co 63 McConnell, Alex.... 45 McCoy, L. W 50 McCray Refrigerator 36 McFarlands 48 McGee. Walter S... 88 McGregor Bros I McHutchlson & Co.. 56 McKellar, Chas 52 McLellan Co 70-71 McManus, Jas 66 McMorran & Co 92 MacNltr Hort. Co.... 1 Madden, Florist. 44 Madison Basketcraft 28 Magnuson. A 74 Maneely, John 85 Marvin. Ira G 44 Massmann 44 Matthews, W. G 48 Matthewson, J. E... 51 May & Co., L. L.... 51 Meconl. Paul 66 Meier. Carl 61 Metalrie Ridge Nur. 47 Mette, Henry 66 Metz & Batemau 48 Meyer. Chas. F 62 Mlchell Co., H. P... 37 Michigan Cut Fl'r.. 38 Mlllang, Chas 55-66 Mills 46 MInge Floral Co 46 Monlnger Co IV Moore, Hentz & Nash 66 Morehead Mfg. Co.. 84 Morse & Beals 43 Mountain View Flo- ral Co 70 Mt. Gllead Pottery. 86 Munson, H 85 Murata & Co 68 Murphy, Wm 64 Murray, Samuel 49 Myer 45 * Myers Bros 44 K. National Florists' Board of Trade... 67 Natural Guano Co.. 89 Neldinger, J. G 64 Newburys, The 50 Newell, A 49 New England Ento- mological Co 30 Newman & Sons.... 43 New York Florists' Supply Co 67 Nicotine Mfg. Co... 89 Niessen Co., Leo... .34 Noll & Co.. T. J.... 74 North Carolina Ever- green Co 38 North Floral Co 51 0. Oechslin, Ernest... SI Oechslln, Frank S3 Olinger, P. J 75 Olsen, Chr .56 Olsson & Bernson... 70 Oriental Seed Co 71 Ostertag Bros 49 Owen, Winifred 31 P, Pacific Nurseries... GO Paducah Pottery Co. 88 Palez, Paul M 40 Palisades Nurseries. 73 Palmer & Son 44 Panzer, 0. E 71 Park Floral Co 43 Peacock Dahlia Farms 77 Pearson. E. W 43 Pearson. P 79 Pedrick & Son .54 I'elrce. E. A 86 Pellcano. Rossi 50 Peninsula Nursery Co 78 Penn, Henry , 43" Pennoek-Meehan ... 35> Peters, W. E 43 ' . Peters & Reed 86. Peterson. J. A I I'eterson Nursery... 73 Pfuff & Kendall 85- Pfaltzgraff Pottery. 88 »» Phlla. Cut Flower.. 35 Philips Bros 44 Phillips. Florist 45. Phoenix Nursery Co. 41 Pierce Co.. F. O... 91 Pierce ft Co 46. Pierson. A. N 80 Pierson Co., F. R.. 79' Pieters-Wheeler ... 54 Pikes Peak Flo. Co. 43 PUley Packing & Flue Brush Co 85 Pillsbury, I. L 52-93 Pittsburgh Cut Flower Co 63; Pittsburgh Glass... 91 Plantllfe Co 88- Plath, H OO- Poilesta & Baldocchl 50. Poehlmann Bros... .4-5- Polder & Groen 69> Pollworth Co...32-63-88 Potter Floral Co 42: Pritchard. J. N 3»' Pulverized Manure Co 88 Purnell, W. Z 38- B. Raedlein Basket Co. 26- Rahn & Herbert 71 Ramsburg, G. S 81 Randall's Fir. Shop. 43: Randall Co 25-74 Randolph & Me- rifincnts 53-01 Ratcllffe. John L. .. 46; Reed & Keller 67 Regan Ptg. House.. 78 Reld. Edw 64 Relmers. M. D 47 Reinberg, Geo 65- Reinberg, P 6-76. RennlsoD Co 51 Rentsehler Flo. Co. 51 Renter's 43 Kice, M., Co 8 Rice Bros 65 Richmond Cedar Works 92- Rltto, W. A 71 Rober, Ernest 83; Robinson Seed Co... 64 Rochelle & Sons.... 74-77-78-80-82-87-90 Rock Flower Co 49 Rocklln & Lehman. 51 Roehrs Co. ■. SO Rolmert. Waldo 54 Rolker & Sons 57 Rosa la Bros 50- Kosaia Co.. S 71 Rosemont Gardens.. 46 Rosens, B 67 Rosery, The 44-50^ Routzahn Seed Co.. 55 Rumbley Co 39- Rupp, John F 62 Unsch & Co., Gust. 63 RiisconI, D 61 Russln ft Hanfllng.. 67 Rye. George 49' S. St. Ix)uis Seed Co.. nn- Snltford Fl'r Shop.. 45. Samuelson. C. A... 53 Sanders 40- 8coery, Edward.... 44 Schilder Bros 54 Schiller. The Florist .52 Schillo. Adam Ill Schlatter & Son 9'i Scliling, Max 4.5 Schluraff Flo. Co... 44 Schramm Bros 48 Schroeter. B 42 Scliulthels. Anton... 70 Schultheis 44 Schultz & Co 32 Schulz, Jacob 47 Sohwake & Co 56 Scott. David J 8 .Scott. John 77 Scrim's Florist 50 Sefton Mfg. Co 32 Sharp. Partridge... 01 Sheridan. W. F 66 Slierwood. Chas. ... 51 Siehreclit. Geo. 0... 66 Slebrecht Co 66 Siebrecht & Son 45 Simmons & Son 50 Sioux City Seed & Nursery Co 54 Skidelsky & Ct) 7» Note About Images Please note that these images are extracted from scanned page images that may have been digitally enhanced for readability - coloration and appearance of these illustrations may not perfectly resemble the original work.

Information From: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brooklyn_bridge Brooklyn Bridge From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Brooklyn bridge) Jump to: navigation, search For other uses, see Brooklyn Bridge (disambiguation). Brooklyn Bridge Carries Motor vehicles (cars only) Elevated trains (until 1944) Streetcars (until 1950) Pedestrians, and bicycles Crosses East River Locale New York City (Manhattan–Brooklyn) Maintained by New York City Department of Transportation Designer John Augustus Roebling Design Suspension/Cable-stay Hybrid Total length 5,989 feet (1825 m)[1] Width 85 feet (26 m) Longest span 1,595 feet 6 inches (486.3 m) Clearance below 135 feet (41 m) at mid-span Opened May 24, 1883 Toll Free both ways Daily traffic 123,781 (2008)[2] Coordinates 40°42′20″N 73°59′47″W / 40.70569°N 73.99639°W / 40.70569; -73.99639 (Brooklyn Bridge)Coordinates: 40°42′20″N 73°59′47″W / 40.70569°N 73.99639°W / 40.70569; -73.99639 (Brooklyn Bridge) Brooklyn Bridge U.S. National Register of Historic Places U.S. National Historic Landmark NYC Landmark Built/Founded: 1883 Architectural style(s): Gothic Added to NRHP: 1966[3] Designated NHL: January 29, 1964[4] NRHP Reference#: 75001237 The Brooklyn Bridge is one of the oldest suspension bridges in the United States. Completed in 1883, it connects the New York City boroughs of Manhattan and Brooklyn by spanning the East River. With a main span of 1,595.5 feet (486.3 m), it was the longest suspension bridge in the world from its opening until 1903, and the first steel-wire suspension bridge. Originally referred to as the New York and Brooklyn Bridge, it was dubbed the Brooklyn Bridge in a January 25, 1867 letter to the editor of the Brooklyn Daily Eagle,[5] and formally so named by the city government in 1915. Since its opening, it has become an iconic part of the New York skyline. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1964[4][6][7] and a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark in 1972.[8] Contents [hide] 1 Construction 2 Pedestrian and vehicular access 2.1 Notable events 2.2 100th anniversary celebrations 2.3 125th anniversary celebrations 3 Cultural significance 4 References 5 Further reading 6 External links [edit] Construction The Brooklyn Bridge was initially designed by German immigrant John Augustus Roebling, who had previously designed and constructed shorter suspension bridges, such as Roebling's Delaware Aqueduct in Lackawaxen, Pennsylvania, and the John A. Roebling Suspension Bridge in Cincinnati, Ohio. While conducting surveys for the bridge project, Roebling sustained a crush injury to his foot when a ferry pinned it against a piling. After amputation of his crushed toes he developed a tetanus infection which left him incapacitated and soon resulted in his death, not long after he had placed his 32 year-old son Washington Roebling in charge of the project.[9] Washington Roebling also suffered a paralyzing injury as a result of decompression sickness shortly after the beginning of construction on January 3, 1870.[10] This condition, first called "caisson disease" by the project physician Dr. Andrew Smith, afflicted many of the workers working within the caissons.[11][12] After Roebling's debilitating condition left him unable to physically supervise the construction firsthand, his wife Emily Warren Roebling stepped in and provided the critical written link between her husband and the engineers on-site.[13] Under her husband's guidance, Emily had studied higher mathematics, the calculations of catenary curves, the strengths of materials, bridge specifications, and the intricacies of cable construction.[14][15][16] She spent the next 11 years assisting Washington Roebling helping to supervise the bridge's construction. When iron probes underneath the caisson found the bedrock to be even deeper than expected, Roebling halted construction due to the increased risk of decompression sickness. He deemed the aggregate overlying the bedrock 30 feet (9 m) below it to be firm enough to support the tower base.[17] The Brooklyn Bridge was completed thirteen years later and was opened for use on May 24, 1883. The opening ceremony was attended by several thousand people and many ships were present in the East Bay for the occasion. President Chester A. Arthur and New York Mayor Franklin Edson crossed the bridge to celebratory cannon fire and were greeted by Brooklyn Mayor Seth Low when they reached the Brooklyn-side tower. Arthur shook hands with Washington Roebling at the latter's home, after the ceremony. Roebling was unable to attend the ceremony (and in fact rarely visited the site again), but held a celebratory banquet at his house on the day of the bridge opening. Further festivity included the performance of a band, gunfire from ships, and a fireworks display.[18] On that first day, a total of 1,800 vehicles and 150,300 people crossed what was then the only land passage between Manhattan and Brooklyn. Emily Warren Roebling was the first to cross the bridge. The bridge's main span over the East River is 1,595 feet 6 inches (486.3 m). The bridge cost $15.5 million to build and approximately 27 people died during its construction.[19] One week after the opening, on May 30, 1883, a rumor that the Bridge was going to collapse caused a stampede, which crushed and killed at least twelve people.[20] On May 17, 1884, P. T. Barnum helped to squelch doubts about the bridge's stability—while publicizing his famous circus—when one of his most famous attractions, Jumbo, led a parade of 21 elephants over the Brooklyn Bridge.[21][22][23][24] Plan of one tower for the Brooklyn Bridge, 1867At the time it opened, and for several years, it was the longest suspension bridge in the world—50% longer than any previously built — and it has become a treasured landmark. Since the 1980s, it has been floodlit at night to highlight its architectural features. The towers are built of limestone, granite, and Rosendale cement. Their architectural style is neo-Gothic, with characteristic pointed arches above the passageways through the stone towers. The paint scheme of the bridge is "Brooklyn Bridge Tan", although is has been argued that the original paint was "Rawlins Red".[25] At the time the bridge was built, the aerodynamics of bridge building had not been worked out. Bridges were not tested in wind tunnels until the 1950s—well after the collapse of the original Tacoma Narrows Bridge (Galloping Gertie) in 1940. It is therefore fortunate that the open truss structure supporting the deck is by its nature less subject to aerodynamic problems. Roebling designed a bridge and truss system that was six times as strong as he thought it needed to be. Because of this, the Brooklyn Bridge is still standing when many of the bridges built around the same time have vanished into history and been replaced. This is also in spite of the substitution of inferior quality wire in the cabling supplied by the contractor J. Lloyd Haigh—by the time it was discovered, it was too late to replace the cabling that had already been constructed. Roebling determined that the poorer wire would leave the bridge four rather than six times as strong as necessary, so it was eventually allowed to stand, with the addition of 250 cables. Diagonal cables were installed from the towers to the deck, intended to stiffen the bridge. They turned out to be unnecessary, but were kept for their distinctive beauty. After the collapse in 2007 of the I-35W highway bridge in the city of Minneapolis, increased public attention has been brought to bear on the condition of bridges across the US, and it has been reported that the Brooklyn Bridge approach ramps received a rating of "poor" at its last inspection.[26] According to a NYC Department of Transportation spokesman, "The poor rating it received does not mean it is unsafe. Poor means there are some components that have to be rehabilitated." A $725 million project to replace the approaches and repaint the bridge was scheduled to begin in 2009.[27] The construction of the Brooklyn Bridge is detailed in the 1978 book The Great Bridge by David McCullough[13] and Brooklyn Bridge (1981), the first PBS documentary film ever made by Ken Burns.[28] Burns drew heavily on McCullough's book for the film and used him as narrator.[29] It is also described in Seven Wonders of the Industrial World, a BBC docudrama series with accompanying book. [edit] Pedestrian and vehicular access Cross section diagramAt various times, the bridge has carried horse-drawn and trolley traffic; at present, it has six lanes for motor vehicles, with a separate walkway along the centerline for pedestrians and bicycles. Due to the roadway's height (11 ft (3.4 m) posted) and weight (6,000 lb (2,700 kg) posted) restrictions, commercial vehicles and buses are prohibited from using this bridge. The two inside traffic lanes once carried elevated trains of the BMT from Brooklyn points to a terminal at Park Row via Sands Street. Streetcars ran on what are now the two center lanes (shared with other traffic) until the elevated lines stopped using the bridge in 1944, when they moved to the protected center tracks. In 1950 the streetcars also stopped running, and the bridge was rebuilt to carry six lanes of automobile traffic. The Brooklyn Bridge is accessible from the Brooklyn entrances of Tillary/Adams Streets, Sands/Pearl Streets, and Exit 28B of the eastbound Brooklyn-Queens Expressway. In Manhattan, motor cars can enter from either direction of the FDR Drive, Park Row, Chambers/Centre Streets, and Pearl/Frankfort Streets. Pedestrian access to the bridge from the Brooklyn side is from either Tillary/Adams Streets (in between the auto entrance/exit), or a staircase on Prospect St between Cadman Plaza East and West. In Manhattan, the pedestrian walkway is accessible from the end of Centre Street, or through the unpaid south staircase of Brooklyn Bridge-City Hall IRT subway station. View from the pedestrian walkway. The bridge's cable arrangement forms a distinct weblike pattern.The Brooklyn Bridge has a wide pedestrian walkway open to walkers and cyclists, in the center of the bridge and higher than the automobile lanes. While the bridge has always permitted the passage of pedestrians across its span, its role in allowing thousands to cross takes on a special importance in times of difficulty when usual means of crossing the East River have become unavailable. During transit strikes by the Transport Workers Union in 1980 and 2005, the bridge was used by people commuting to work, with Mayors Koch and Bloomberg crossing the bridge as a gesture to the affected public.[30][31] Following the 1965, 1977 and 2003 Blackouts and most famously after the September 11, 2001, attacks on the World Trade Center, the bridge was used by people in Manhattan to leave the city after subway service was suspended. The massive numbers of people on the bridge could not have been anticipated by the original designer, yet John Roebling designed it with three separate systems managing even unanticipated structural stresses. The bridge has a suspension system, a diagonal stay system, and a stiffening truss. "Roebling himself famously said if anything happens to one of [his] systems, 'The bridge may sag, but it will not fall.'"[32] The movement of large numbers of people on a bridge creates pedestrian oscillations or "sway" as the crowd lifts one foot after another, some falling inevitably in synchronized cadences. The natural sway motion of people walking causes small sideways oscillations in a bridge, which in turn cause people on the bridge to sway in step, increasing the amplitude of the bridge oscillations and continually reinforcing the effect. High-density traffic of this nature causes a bridge to appear to move erratically or "to wobble" as happened at opening of the London Millennium Footbridge in 2000.[33] Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper c.1883[edit] Notable events First jumper The first person to jump from the bridge was Robert E. Odlum on May 19, 1885. He struck the water at an angle and died shortly thereafter from internal injuries.[34] Steve Brodie was the most famous jumper, or self-proclaimed jumper (in 1886). Bungee jump On June 1993, following 13 reconnoiters inside the metal structure, and with the help of a mountain guide, Thierry Devaux performed (illegally) eight acrobatic bungee jumps above the East River close to the Brooklyn pier, in the early morning. He used an electric winch between each acrobatic figure.[35] 1994 Brooklyn Bridge shooting Main article: Brooklyn Bridge Shooting On March 1, 1994, Lebanese-born Rashid Baz opened fire on a van carrying members of the Chabad-Lubavitch Orthodox Jewish Movement, striking sixteen-year-old student Ari Halberstam and three others traveling on the bridge.[36] Halberstam died five days later from his wounds. Baz was apparently acting out of revenge for the Hebron massacre of 29 Muslims by Baruch Goldstein that had taken place days earlier on February 25, 1994. Baz was convicted of murder and sentenced to a 141-year prison term. After initially classifying the murder as one committed out of road rage, the Justice Department reclassified the case in 2000 as a terrorist attack. The entrance ramp to the bridge on the Manhattan side was named the Ari Halberstam Memorial Ramp in memory of the victim.[37] The 2003 plot In 2003, truck driver Iyman Faris was sentenced to about 20 years in prison for providing material support to Al-Qaeda, after an earlier plot to destroy the bridge by cutting through its support wires with blowtorches was thwarted through information the National Security Agency uncovered through wiretapped phone conversations and interrogation of Al-Qaeda militants.[38] 2006 bunker discovery In 2006, a Cold War era bunker was found by city workers near the East River shoreline of Manhattan's Lower East Side. The bunker, hidden within the masonry anchorage, still contained the emergency supplies that were being stored for a potential nuclear attack by the Soviet Union.[39] [edit] 100th anniversary celebrations The centennary celebrations on May 24, 1983, saw a cavalcade of cars crossing the bridge, led by President Ronald Reagan. A flotilla of ships visited the harbor, parades were held, and in the evening the sky over the bridge was illuminated by Grucci fireworks.[40] The Brooklyn Museum exhibited a selection of the original drawings made for the bridge's construction, some by Washington Roebling himself. [edit] 125th anniversary celebrations Beginning on May 22, 2008, festivities were held over a five-day period to celebrate the 125th anniversary of the opening of the Brooklyn Bridge. The events kicked off with a live performance of the Brooklyn Philharmonic in Empire–Fulton Ferry State Park, followed by special lighting of the bridge's towers and a fireworks display.[41] Other events held during the 125th anniversary celebrations, which coincided with the Memorial Day weekend, included a film series, historical walking tours, information tents, a series of lectures and readings, a bicycle tour of Brooklyn, a miniature golf course featuring Brooklyn icons, and other musical and dance performances.[42] Just before the anniversary celebrations, the Telectroscope, which created a video link between New York and London, was installed on the Brooklyn side of the bridge. The installation lasted for a few weeks and permitted viewers in New York to see people looking into a matching telectroscope in front of London's Tower Bridge.[43] A newly renovated pedestrian connection to DUMBO was also unveiled before the anniversary celebrations.[44] [edit] Cultural significance Contemporaries marveled at what technology was capable of and the bridge became a symbol of the optimism of the time. John Perry Barlow wrote in the late 20th century of the "literal and genuinely religious leap of faith" embodied in the Brooklyn Bridge ... "the Brooklyn Bridge required of its builders faith in their ability to control technology."[45] References to "selling the Brooklyn Bridge" abound in American culture, sometimes as examples of rural gullibility but more often in connection with an idea that strains credulity. For example, "If you believe that, I've got a bridge to sell you."[citation needed] References are often nowadays more oblique, such as "I could sell you some lovely riverside property in Brooklyn ...".[citation needed] George C. Parker and William McCloundy are two early 20th-century con-men who had (allegedly) successfully perpetrated this scam on unwitting tourists.[46] The 1949 Bugs Bunny cartoon Bowery Bugs is a joking reference to Bugs "selling" a story of the Brooklyn Bridge to a naive tourist. In his second book The Bridge, Hart Crane begins with a poem entitled "Proem: To Brooklyn Bridge." The bridge was a source of inspiration for Crane and he owned different apartments specifically to have different views of the bridge. [edit] References ^ "NYCDOT Bridges Information". New York City Department of Transportation. www.nyc.gov/html/dot/html/bridges/bridges.shtml#brooklyn. Retrieved 2008-08-23. ^ "New York City Bridge Traffic Volumes 2008" (PDF). New York City Department of Transportation. March 2010. p. 63. www.nyc.gov/html/dot/downloads/pdf/bridgetrafrpt08.pdf. Retrieved 2010-07-10. ^ "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. 2007-01-23. www.nr.nps.gov/. ^ a b "Brooklyn Bridge". National Historic Landmark summary listing. National Park Service. tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=376&Resource.... ^ E.P.D. (January 25, 1867). "Bridging the East River – Another Project". The Brooklyn Daily Eagle: p. 2. www.brooklynpubliclibrary.org/eagle/. Retrieved 2007-11-26. ^ "The Brooklyn Bridge", February 24, 1975, by James B. Armstrong and S. Sydney Bradford "National Register of Historic Places Inventory-Nomination"]. National Park Service. 1975-02-24. pdfhost.focus.nps.gov/docs/NHLS/Text/66000523.pdf "The Brooklyn Bridge", February 24, 1975, by James B. Armstrong and S. Sydney Bradford]. ^ The Brooklyn Bridge—Accompanying three photos, from 1975. "National Register of Historic Places Inventory-Nomination"]. National Park Service. 1975-02-24. pdfhost.focus.nps.gov/docs/NHLS/Photos/66000523.pdf The Brooklyn Bridge—Accompanying three photos, from 1975.]. ^ "Brooklyn Bridge". ASCE Metropolitan Section. www.ascemetsection.org/content/view/339/872/. Retrieved 2010-06-30. ^ "THE BUILDING OF THE BRIDGE.; ITS COST AND THE DIFFICULTIES MET WITH-- DETAILS OF THE HISTORY OF A GREAT ENGINEERING TRIUMPH.". The New York Times. May 24, 1883. query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9F01E5DC1431E433A.... Retrieved 2009-10-27. ^ Butler WP (2004). "Caisson disease during the construction of the Eads and Brooklyn Bridges: A review". Undersea Hyperb Med 31 (4): 445–59. PMID 15686275. archive.rubicon-foundation.org/4028. Retrieved 2008-06-19. ^ Smith, Andrew Heermance (1886). The Physiological, Pathological and Therapeutical Effects of Compressed Air. Detroit: George S. Davis. books.google.com/?id=hLq981_A5bMC&printsec=frontcover.... Retrieved 2009-04-17. ^ Acott, Chris (1999). "A brief history of diving and decompression illness.". South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society journal 29 (2). ISSN 0813-1988. OCLC 16986801. archive.rubicon-foundation.org/6004. Retrieved 2009-04-17. ^ a b Amazon.com: The Great Bridge: The Epic Story of the Building of the Brooklyn Bridge: J'aime Drisdelle: Books ^ Weigold, Marilyn (1984). Silent Builder: Emily Warren Roebling and the Brooklyn Bridge. Associated Faculty Press. ^ McCullough, David (1983). The Great Bridge: The Epic Story of the Building of the Brooklyn Bridge. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 421. ^ "Emily Warren Roebling". American Society of Civil Engineers. www.asce.org/PPLContent.aspx?id=2147487328. Retrieved 2010-06-30. ^ "GlassSteelandStone: Brooklyn Bridge-tower rests on sand". www.glasssteelandstone.com/BuildingDetail/435.php. Retrieved 2007-02-20. ^ Reeves, Thomas C. (1975). Gentleman Boss. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 359–360. ISBN 0-394-46095-2. ^ "Brooklyn Daily Eagle 1841–1902 Online". Archived from the original on 2007-11-14. web.archive.org/web/20071114135249/http://eagle.brooklynp.... Retrieved 2007-11-23. ^ "Dead on the New Bridge; Fatal Crush at the Western Approach". The New York Times. May 31, 1883. query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=980DE3DA1431E433A.... Retrieved 2010-02-20. ^ Bildner, Phil (2004). Twenty-One Elephants. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0689870116. ^ Prince, April Jones (2005). Twenty-One Elephants and Still Standing. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 061844887X. ^ "P.T. Barnum – MSN Encarta". Archived from the original on 2009-10-31. www.webcitation.org/5kwQPajtQ. ^ Strausbaugh, John (November 9, 2007). "When Barnum Took Manhattan". The New York Times. www.nytimes.com/2007/11/09/arts/09expl.html. Retrieved 2008-09-21. ^ Gary Buiso, New York Post (May 25, 2010). "A True Cover Up. Brooklyn Bridge Paint Job Glosses over History". www.nypost.com/p/news/local/brooklyn/true_cover_up_brookl.... Retrieved October 23, 2010. ^ Chan, Sewell (August 2, 2007). "Brooklyn Bridge Is One of 3 With Poor Rating". The New York Times. cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2007/08/02/brooklyn-bridge-is-.... Retrieved 2007-09-10. ^ "Brooklyn Bridge called 'safe' – DOT says span is okay despite getting a 'poor' rating". Courier-Life Publications. www.baynewsbrooklyn.com/site/news.cfm?newsid=18685076&amp.... Retrieved 2007-08-12. ^ Burns, Ken. "Why I Decided to Make Brooklyn Bridge". Public Broadcasting Service. www.pbs.org/kenburns/brooklynbridge/about/. Retrieved 2010-02-20. ^ "Burns, Ken – U.S. Documentary Film Maker". The Museum of Broadcast Communications. www.museum.tv/eotvsection.php?entrycode=burnsken. Retrieved 2010-02-20. ^ Quindlen, Anna (April 2, 1980). "Koch Faces Day Ebulliently; He Looks Well Rested". The New York Times. select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F3061EFB395C1272.... Retrieved 2010-06-30. ^ Rutenberg, Jim (December 21, 2005). "On Foot, on Bridge and at City Hall, Bloomberg Is Irate". The New York Times. www.nytimes.com/2005/12/21/nyregion/nyregionspecial3/21ma.... Retrieved 2010-06-30. ^ Julavits, Robert (August 26, 2003). "Point of Collapse". The Village Voice. www.villagevoice.com/2003-08-26/news/point-of-collapse/. Retrieved 2010-02-20. ^ Steven Henry, Strogatz (2003). Sync: The Emerging Science of Spontaneous Order. New York: Hyperion. pp. 174–175, 312, 320. ISBN 0786868449. ^ "Odlum's Leap to Death". The New York Times: p. 1. May 20, 1885. query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=990DE4D91739E533A.... Retrieved 2008-04-15. ^ "Brooklyn Bridge". SunnyDream. www.sunnydream.info/index.php?page=brooklyn. Retrieved 2010-06-25. ^ Sexton, Joe (March 2, 1994). "4 Hasidic Youths Hurt in Brooklyn Bridge Shooting". The New York Times. www.nytimes.com/1994/03/02/nyregion/4-hasidic-youths-hurt.... Retrieved 2010-06-30. ^ "In Memoriam". Ari Halberstam Memorial Site. www.arihalberstam.com/in-memoriam/. Retrieved 2010-06-30. ^ "Iyman Faris". GlobalSecurity.org. www.globalsecurity.org/security/profiles/iyman_faris.htm. Retrieved 2010-06-30. ^ Lovgren, Stefan (March 24, 2006). "Cold War "Time Capsule" Found in Brooklyn Bridge". National Geographic. news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/03/0324_060324_broo.... Retrieved 2010-02-20. ^ NYC Roads. "The Brooklyn Bridge". www.nycroads.com/crossings/brooklyn/. Retrieved October 23, 2010. ^ Burke, Kerry; Hutchinson, Bill (May 23, 2008). "Brooklyn Bridge turns 125 with a bang". Daily News (New York). www.nydailynews.com/ny_local/brooklyn/2008/05/22/2008-05-.... Retrieved 2009-08-01. ^ "Brooklyn Bridge 125th Anniversary Celebration". ASCE Metropolitan Section. www.ascemetsection.org/content/view/121/830/. Retrieved 2009-08-01. ^ Ryzik, Melena (May 21, 2008). "Telescope Takes a Long View, to London". The New York Times. www.nytimes.com/2008/05/21/arts/design/21tele.html. Retrieved 2009-08-01. ^ Farmer, Ann (May 21, 2008). "This Way to Brooklyn, This Way". The New York Times. cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/05/21/welcome-to-dumbo-it.... Retrieved 2009-08-01. ^ Cultural Significance ^ Cohen, Gabriel (November 27, 2005). "For You, Half Price". The New York Times. www.nytimes.com/2005/11/27/nyregion/thecity/27brid.htm. Retrieved 2010-02-20. [edit] Further reading Cadbury, Deborah. (2004), Dreams of Iron and Steel. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-00-716307-X Haw, Richard. (2005). The Brooklyn Bridge: A Cultural History. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. ISBN 0-8135-3587-5 Haw, Richard. (2008). Art of the Brooklyn Bridge: A Visual History. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-95386-3 McCullough, David. (1972). The Great Bridge. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-21213-3 Strogatz, Steven. (2003). Sync: The Emerging Science of Spontaneous Order. New York: Hyperion books. 10-ISBN 0-7868-6844-9; 13-ISBN 978-0-7868-6844-5 (cloth) [2nd ed., Hyperion, 2004. 10-ISBN 0-7868-8721-4; 13-ISBN 978-0-7868-8721-7 (paper)] Strogartz, Steven, Daniel M. Abrams, Allan McRobie, Bruno Eckhardt, and Edward Ott. et al. (2005). "Theoretical mechanics: Crowd synchrony on the Millennium Bridge," Nature, Vol. 438, pp, 43–44.link to Nature articleMillennium Bridge opening day video illustrating "crowd synchrony" oscillations Trachtenberg, Alan. (1965). Brooklyn Bridge: Fact and Symbol. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226811158 [2nd ed., 1979, ISBN 0-226-81115-8 (paper)] [edit] External links New York City portal Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Brooklyn Bridge 360° Interactive panorama from the top of the Brooklyn Bridge The Brooklyn Bridge: A Study in Greatness NYCroads.com – Brooklyn Bridge Transportation Alternatives Fiboro Bridges – Brooklyn Bridge The story of Brooklyn Bridge – by CBS Forum Panorama of Brooklyn Bridge 1899 – Extreme Photo Constructions Structurae: Brooklyn Bridge Great Buildings entry for the Brooklyn Bridge American Society of Civil Engineers Railroad Extra – Brooklyn Bridge and its Railway Images of the Brooklyn Bridge from the Brooklyn Museum Brooklyn Bridge Photo Gallery with a Flash VR 360 of the Brooklyn Bridge Pedestrian Walkway Opening Ceremonies of the New York and Brooklyn Bridge, May 24, 1883 at Project Gutenberg Brooklyn Bridge at Historical Marker Database

GREENSBORO– In front of a crowd of community supporters, business leaders and state and local elected officials, Governor Roy Cooper touted a new 9.4-mile section of Interstate 73 as one of the most important transportation projects of the last two decades in the Triad. “Interstate connections bring mobility, economic development, job creation and improved quality of life,” said Governor Roy Cooper. “We are already seeing how this new highway is contributing to economic growth here in the Triad region, with more than $235 million in investment planned along the corridor.” Governor Cooper, Transportation Secretary Jim Trogdon and Board of Transportation Chair Michael Fox celebrated the project during a formal ribbon cutting ceremony on Friday, June 9. The new section of interstate runs from the Joseph M. Bryan Boulevard/Airport Parkway interchange in Greensboro, crosses over N.C. 68 and ends south of U.S. 220 near the Haw River. The project’s contract cost $176.5 million, and included construction of a taxiway bridge at PTI Airport that is expected to spur development by providing runway access to more than 800 acres. “A lot of collaboration went into seeing this project to completion. It has long been Rockingham County’s number one priority, as well as a top priority for Guilford County,” Secretary Trogdon said. “It would not have been possible without a collective effort.” The roadway was completed two years earlier than originally scheduled by combining two sections of the project into a single design-build contract. In addition to the accelerating the project’s timeline, the design-build method lessens environmental impacts and saves taxpayer money by avoiding cost inflation. “This new route cuts commutes in half and increases safety for drivers,” said Board of Transportation Chair Michael Fox. “It provides a new route without intersections and red lights, and reducing those potential collision points saves lives.” I-73 is eventually slated to run from South Carolina to Michigan, tying North Carolina into a national effort to improve north-south travel for much of the country. All lanes of the new section are expected to open to traffic in July. The 6-mile section of I-73 connecting U.S. 220 and N.C. 68 opened to traffic on May 19. For more about the project, including maps and pictures click here. Local business and government leaders had the following to say about the project and its impact: “We see I-73 as a major shot in the arm to our economic development efforts,” said Jan Critz, president of the Rockingham County Center for Economic Development, Small Business and Tourism. “During the initial construction phase alone, this project created about 200 jobs in Rockingham County, and it provides better access to the nearly 3,500 jobs found at nearby businesses such as Honda Jet and Timco.” “It’s a crucial link to hundreds of acres owned by the Authority, and enables outstanding flexibility with respect to the size and shapes of sites that we have to offer to prospective companies,” said PTIA Executive Director Kevin Baker. “I believe that history will reflect upon the completion of this connection as a critical milestone in the life of this airport, and the growing role of this region and the State of North Carolina in the aerospace industry.” “An impressive road network like this one gives visitors, whether Furniture Market attendees or tourists, better access to High Point and Greensboro,” said High Point Economic Development Corporation President Loren Hill. “The Town of Oak Ridge is excited about this project, which will reduce bottlenecking on N.C. 68 through our town,” added Oak Ridge Town Manager Bruce Oakley.

GREENSBORO– In front of a crowd of community supporters, business leaders and state and local elected officials, Governor Roy Cooper touted a new 9.4-mile section of Interstate 73 as one of the most important transportation projects of the last two decades in the Triad. “Interstate connections bring mobility, economic development, job creation and improved quality of life,” said Governor Roy Cooper. “We are already seeing how this new highway is contributing to economic growth here in the Triad region, with more than $235 million in investment planned along the corridor.” Governor Cooper, Transportation Secretary Jim Trogdon and Board of Transportation Chair Michael Fox celebrated the project during a formal ribbon cutting ceremony on Friday, June 9. The new section of interstate runs from the Joseph M. Bryan Boulevard/Airport Parkway interchange in Greensboro, crosses over N.C. 68 and ends south of U.S. 220 near the Haw River. The project’s contract cost $176.5 million, and included construction of a taxiway bridge at PTI Airport that is expected to spur development by providing runway access to more than 800 acres. “A lot of collaboration went into seeing this project to completion. It has long been Rockingham County’s number one priority, as well as a top priority for Guilford County,” Secretary Trogdon said. “It would not have been possible without a collective effort.” The roadway was completed two years earlier than originally scheduled by combining two sections of the project into a single design-build contract. In addition to the accelerating the project’s timeline, the design-build method lessens environmental impacts and saves taxpayer money by avoiding cost inflation. “This new route cuts commutes in half and increases safety for drivers,” said Board of Transportation Chair Michael Fox. “It provides a new route without intersections and red lights, and reducing those potential collision points saves lives.” I-73 is eventually slated to run from South Carolina to Michigan, tying North Carolina into a national effort to improve north-south travel for much of the country. All lanes of the new section are expected to open to traffic in July. The 6-mile section of I-73 connecting U.S. 220 and N.C. 68 opened to traffic on May 19. For more about the project, including maps and pictures click here. Local business and government leaders had the following to say about the project and its impact: “We see I-73 as a major shot in the arm to our economic development efforts,” said Jan Critz, president of the Rockingham County Center for Economic Development, Small Business and Tourism. “During the initial construction phase alone, this project created about 200 jobs in Rockingham County, and it provides better access to the nearly 3,500 jobs found at nearby businesses such as Honda Jet and Timco.” “It’s a crucial link to hundreds of acres owned by the Authority, and enables outstanding flexibility with respect to the size and shapes of sites that we have to offer to prospective companies,” said PTIA Executive Director Kevin Baker. “I believe that history will reflect upon the completion of this connection as a critical milestone in the life of this airport, and the growing role of this region and the State of North Carolina in the aerospace industry.” “An impressive road network like this one gives visitors, whether Furniture Market attendees or tourists, better access to High Point and Greensboro,” said High Point Economic Development Corporation President Loren Hill. “The Town of Oak Ridge is excited about this project, which will reduce bottlenecking on N.C. 68 through our town,” added Oak Ridge Town Manager Bruce Oakley.

Kashgar is an oasis city with an approximate population of 350,000. It is the westernmost city in China, located near the border with Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. Kashgar has a rich history of over 2,000 years and served as a trading post and strategically important city on the Silk Road between China, the Middle East, and Europe. Kashgar is part of the China–Pakistan Economic Corridor. Located historically at the convergence point of widely varying cultures and empires, Kashgar has been under the rule of the Chinese, Turkic, Mongol, and Tibetan empires. The city has also been the site of an extraordinary number of battles between various groups of people on the steppes. Now administered as a county-level unit of the People's Republic of China, Kashgar is the administrative centre of its eponymous prefecture in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region which has an area of 162,000 square kilometres and a population of approximately 3.5 million. The city's urban area covers 15 km2, though its administrative area extends over 555 km2. NAME The modern Chinese name is 喀什 (Kāshí), a shortened form of the longer and less-frequently used (simplified Chinese: 喀什噶尔; traditional Chinese: 喀什噶爾; pinyin: Kāshígé’ěr; Uyghur: قەشقەر‎). Ptolemy (AD 90-168), in his Geography, Chapter 15.3A, refers to Kashgar as “Kasi”. Its western and probably indigenous name is the Kāš ("rock"), to which the East Iranian -γar ("mountain"); cf. Pashto and Middle Persian gar/ġar, from Old Persian/Pahlavi girīwa ("hill; ridge (of a mountain)") was attached. Alternative historical Romanizations for "Kashgar" include Cascar and Cashgar. Non-native names for the city, such as the old Chinese name Shule 疏勒 and Tibetan Śu-lig may have originated as an attempts to transcribe the Sanskrit name for Kashgar, Śrīkrīrāti ("fortunate hospitality") Variant transcriptions of the official Uyghur: يېڭىشەھەر‎ include: K̂äxk̂är or Kaxgar, as well as Jangi-schahr, Kashgar Yangi Shahr, K’o-shih-ka-erh, K’o-shih-ka-erh-hsin-ch’eng, Ko-shih-ka-erh-hui-ch’eng, K’o-shih-ko-erh-hsin-ch’eng, New Kashgar, Sheleh, Shuleh, Shulen, Shu-lo, Su-lo, Su-lo-chen, Su-lo-hsien, Yangi-shaar, Yangi-shahr, Yangishar, Yéngisheher, Yengixəh̨ər and Еңишәһәр. HISTORY HAN DYNASTY The earliest mention of Kashgar occurs when a Chinese Han dynasty envoy traveled the Northern Silk Road to explore lands to the west. Another early mention of Kashgar is during the Former Han (also known as the Western Han dynasty), when in 76 BC the Chinese conquered the Xiongnu, Yutian (Khotan), Sulei (Kashgar), and a group of states in the Tarim basin almost up to the foot of the Tian Shan range. Ptolemy speaks of Scythia beyond the Imaus, which is in a “Kasia Regio”, probably exhibiting the name from which Kashgar and Kashgaria (often applied to the district) are formed. The country’s people practised Zoroastrianism and Buddhism before the coming of Islam. In the Book of Han, which covers the period between 125 BC and 23 AD, it is recorded that there were 1,510 households, 18,647 people and 2,000 persons able to bear arms. By the time covered by the Book of the Later Han (roughly 25 to 170 AD), it had grown to 21,000 households and had 3,000 men able to bear arms. The Book of the Later Han provides a wealth of detail on developments in the region: "In the period of Emperor Wu [140-87 BC], the Western Regions1 were under the control of the Interior [China]. They numbered thirty-six kingdoms. The Imperial Government established a Colonel [in charge of] Envoys there to direct and protect these countries. Emperor Xuan [73-49 BC] changed this title [in 59 BC] to Protector-General. Emperor Yuan [40-33 BC] installed two Wuji Colonels to take charge of the agricultural garrisons on the frontiers of the king of Nearer Jushi [Turpan]. During the time of Emperor Ai [6 BC-AD 1] and Emperor Ping [AD 1-5], the principalities of the Western Regions split up and formed fifty-five kingdoms. Wang Mang, after he usurped the Throne [in AD 9], demoted and changed their kings and marquises. Following this, the Western Regions became resentful, and rebelled. They, therefore, broke off all relations with the Interior [China] and, all together, submitted to the Xiongnu again. The Xiongnu collected oppressively heavy taxes and the kingdoms were not able to support their demands. In the middle of the Jianwu period [AD 25-56], they each [Shanshan and Yarkand in 38, and 18 kingdoms in 45], sent envoys to ask if they could submit to the Interior [China], and to express their desire for a Protector-General. Emperor Guangwu, decided that because the Empire was not yet settled [after a long period of civil war], he had no time for outside affairs, and [therefore] finally refused his consent [in AD 45]. In the meantime, the Xiongnu became weaker. The king of Suoju [Yarkand], named Xian, wiped out several kingdoms. After Xian’s death [c. AD 62], they began to attack and fight each other. Xiao Yuan [Tura], Jingjue [Cadota], Ronglu [Niya], and Qiemo [Cherchen] were annexed by Shanshan [the Lop Nur region]. Qule [south of Keriya] and Pishan [modern Pishan or Guma] were conquered and fully occupied by Yutian [Khotan]. Yuli [Fukang], Danhuan, Guhu [Dawan Cheng], and Wutanzili were destroyed by Jushi [Turpan and Jimasa]. Later these kingdoms were re-established. During the Yongping period [AD 58-75], the Northern Xiongnu forced several countries to help them plunder the commanderies and districts of Hexi. The gates of the towns stayed shut in broad daylight." And, more particularly in reference to Kashgar itself, is the following record: "In the sixteenth Yongping year of Emperor Ming 73, Jian, the king of Qiuci (Kucha), attacked and killed Cheng, the king of Shule (Kashgar). Then he appointed the Qiuci (Kucha) Marquis of the Left, Douti, King of Shule (Kashgar). ‹See TfD› In winter 73, the Han sent the Major Ban Chao who captured and bound Douti. He appointed Zhong, the son of the elder brother of Cheng, to be king of Shule (Kashgar). Zhong later rebelled. (Ban) Chao attacked and beheaded him." THE KUSHANS The Book of the Later Han also gives the only extant historical record of Yuezhi or Kushan involvement in the Kashgar oasis: "During the Yuanchu period (114-120) in the reign of Emperor, the king of Shule (Kashgar), exiled his maternal uncle Chenpan to the Yuezhi (Kushans) for some offence. The king of the Yuezhi became very fond of him. Later, Anguo died without leaving a son. His mother directed the government of the kingdom. She agreed with the people of the country to put Yifu (lit. “posthumous child”), who was the son of a full younger brother of Chenpan on the throne as king of Shule (Kashgar). Chenpan heard of this and appealed to the Yuezhi (Kushan) king, saying: "Anguo had no son. His relative (Yifu) is weak. If one wants to put on the throne a member of (Anguo’s) mother’s family, I am Yifu’s paternal uncle, it is I who should be king." The Yuezhi (Kushans) then sent soldiers to escort him back to Shule (Kashgar). The people had previously respected and been fond of Chenpan. Besides, they dreaded the Yuezhi (Kushans). They immediately took the seal and ribbon from Yifu and went to Chenpan, and made him king. Yifu was given the title of Marquis of the town of Pangao [90 li, or 37 km, from Shule]. ‹See TfD› Then Suoju (Yarkand) continued to resist Yutian (Khotan), and put themselves under Shule (Kashgar). Thus Shule (Kashgar), became powerful and a rival to Qiuci (Kucha) and Yutian (Khotan)." However, it was not very long before the Chinese began to reassert their authority in the region: “In the second Yongjian year (127), during Emperor Shun’s reign, Chenpan sent an envoy to respectfully present offerings. The Emperor bestowed on Chenpan the title of Great Commandant-in-Chief for the Han. Chenxun, who was the son of his elder brother, was appointed Temporary Major of the Kingdom. ‹See TfD› In the fifth year (130), Chenpan sent his son to serve the Emperor and, along with envoys from Dayuan (Ferghana) and Suoju (Yarkand), brought tribute and offerings.” From an earlier part of the same text comes the following addition: “In the first Yangjia year (132), Xu You sent the king of Shule (Kashgar), Chenpan, who with 20,000 men, attacked and defeated Yutian (Khotan). He beheaded several hundred people, and released his soldiers to plunder freely. He replaced the king [of Jumi] by installing Chengguo from the family of [the previous king] Xing, and then he returned.”[38] Then the first passage continues: “In the second Yangjia year (133), Chenpan again made offerings (including) a lion and zebu cattle. ‹See TfD› Then, during Emperor Ling’s reign, in the first Jianning year, the king of Shule (Kashgar) and Commandant-in-Chief for the Han (i.e. presumably Chenpan), was shot while hunting by the youngest of his paternal uncles, Hede. Hede named himself king. ‹See TfD› In the third year (170), Meng Tuo, the Inspector of Liangzhou, sent the Provincial Officer Ren She, commanding five hundred soldiers from Dunhuang, with the Wuji Major Cao Kuan, and Chief Clerk of the Western Regions, Zhang Yan, brought troops from Yanqi (Karashahr), Qiuci (Kucha), and the Nearer and Further States of Jushi (Turpan and Jimasa), altogether numbering more than 30,000, to punish Shule (Kashgar). They attacked the town of Zhenzhong [Arach − near Maralbashi] but, having stayed for more than forty days without being able to subdue it, they withdrew. Following this, the kings of Shule (Kashgar) killed one another repeatedly while the Imperial Government was unable to prevent it.” THREE KINGDOMS TO THE SUI These centuries are marked by a general silence in sources on Kashgar and the Tarim Basin. The Weilüe, composed in the second third of the 3rd century, mentions a number of states as dependencies of Kashgar: the kingdom of Zhenzhong (Arach?), the kingdom of Suoju (Yarkand), the kingdom of Jieshi, the kingdom of Qusha, the kingdom of Xiye (Khargalik), the kingdom of Yinai (Tashkurghan), the kingdom of Manli (modern Karasul), the kingdom of Yire (Mazar − also known as Tágh Nák and Tokanak), the kingdom of Yuling, the kingdom of Juandu (‘Tax Control’ − near modern Irkeshtam), the kingdom of Xiuxiu (‘Excellent Rest Stop’ − near Karakavak), and the kingdom of Qin. However, much of the information on the Western Regions contained in the Weilüe seems to have ended roughly about (170), near the end of Han power. So, we can’t be sure that this is a reference to the state of affairs during the Cao Wei (220-265), or whether it refers to the situation before the civil war during the Later Han when China lost touch with most foreign countries and came to be divided into three separate kingdoms. Chapter 30 of the Records of the Three Kingdoms says that after the beginning of the Wei Dynasty (220) the states of the Western Regions did not arrive as before, except for the larger ones such as Kucha, Khotan, Kangju, Wusun, Kashgar, Yuezhi, Shanshan and Turpan, who are said to have come to present tribute every year, as in Han times. In 270, four states from the Western Regions were said to have presented tribute: Karashahr, Turpan, Shanshan, and Kucha. Some wooden documents from Niya seem to indicate that contacts were also maintained with Kashgar and Khotan around this time. In 422, according to the Songshu, ch. 98, the king of Shanshan, Bilong, came to the court and "the thirty-six states in the Western Regions" all swore their allegiance and presented tribute. It must be assumed that these 36 states included Kashgar. The "Songji" of the Zizhi Tongjian records that in the 5th month of 435, nine states: Kucha, Kashgar, Wusun, Yueban, Tashkurghan, Shanshan, Karashahr, Turpan and Sute all came to the Wei court. In 439, according to the Weishu, ch. 4A, Shanshan, Kashgar and Karashahr sent envoys to present tribute. According to the Weishu, ch. 102, Chapter on the Western Regions, the kingdoms of Kucha, Kashgar, Wusun, Yueban, Tashkurghan, Shanshan, Karashahr, Turpan and Sute all began sending envoys to present tribute in the Taiyuan reign period (435-440). In 453 Kashgar sent envoys to present tribute (Weishu, ch. 5), and again in 455. An embassy sent during the reign of Wencheng Di (452-466) from the king of Kashgar presented a supposed sacred relic of the Buddha; a dress which was incombustible. In 507 Kashgar, is said to have sent envoys in both the 9th and 10th months (Weishu, ch. 8). In 512, Kashgar sent envoys in the 1st and 5th months. (Weishu, ch. 8). Early in the 6th century Kashgar is included among the many territories controlled by the Yeda or Hephthalite Huns, but their empire collapsed at the onslaught of the Western Turks between 563 and 567 who then probably gained control over Kashgar and most of the states in the Tarim Basin. TANG DYNASTY The founding of the Tang dynasty in 618 saw the beginning of a prolonged struggle between China and the Western Turks for control of the Tarim Basin. In 635, the Tang Annals reported an emissary from the king of Kashgar to the Tang capital. In 639 there was a second emissary bringing products of Kashgar as a token of submission to the Tang state. Buddhist scholar Xuanzang passed through Kashgar (which he referred to as Ka-sha) in 644 on his return journey from India to China. The Buddhist religion, then beginning to decay in India, was active in Kashgar. Xuanzang recorded that they flattened their babies heads, tattooed their bodies and had green eyes. He reported that Kashgar had abundant crops, fruits and flowers, wove fine woolen stuffs and rugs. Their writing system had been adapted from Indian script but their language was different from that of other countries. The inhabitants were sincere Buddhist adherents and there were some hundreds of monasteries with more than 10,000 followers, all members of the Sarvastivadin School. At around the same era, Nestorian Christians were establishing bishoprics at Herat, Merv and Samarkand, whence they subsequently proceeded to Kashgar, and finally to China proper itself. In 646, the Turkic Kagan asked for the hand of a Tang Chinese princess, and in return the Emperor promised Kucha, Khotan, Kashgar, Karashahr and Sarikol as a marriage gift, but this did not happen as planned. In a series of campaigns between 652 and 658, with the help of the Uyghurs, the Chinese finally defeated the Western Turk tribes and took control of all their domains, including the Tarim Basin kingdoms. Karakhoja was annexed in 640, Karashahr during campaigns in 644 and 648, and Kucha fell in 648. In 662 a rebellion broke out in the Western Regions and a Chinese army sent to control it was defeated by the Tibetans south of Kashgar. After another defeat of the Tang Chinese forces in 670, the Tibetans gained control of the whole region and completely subjugated Kashgar in 676-8 and retained possession of it until 692, when the Tang dynasty regained control of all their former territories, and retained it for the next fifty years. In 722 Kashgar sent 4,000 troops to assist the Chinese to force the "Tibetans out of "Little Bolu" or Gilgit. In 728, the king of Kashgar was awarded a brevet by the Chinese emperor. In 739, the Tangshu relates that the governor of the Chinese garrison in Kashgar, with the help of Ferghana, was interfering in the affairs of the Turgesh tribes as far as Talas. In 751 the Chinese were defeated by an Arab army in the Battle of Talas. The An Lushan Rebellion led to the decline of Tang influence in Central Asia due to the fact that the Tang dynasty was forced to withdraw its troops from the region to fight An Lushan. The Tibetans cut all communication between China and the West in 766. Soon after the Chinese pilgrim monk Wukong passed through Kashgar in 753. He again reached Kashgar on his return trip from India in 786 and mentions a Chinese deputy governor as well as the local king. BATTLES WITH ARAB CALIPHATE In 711, the Arabs invaded Kashgar, but did not hold the city for any length of time. Kashgar and Turkestan lent assistance to the reigning queen of Bukhara, to enable her to repel the Arabs. Although the Muslim religion from the very commencement sustained checks, it nevertheless made its weight felt upon the independent states of Turkestan to the north and east, and thus acquired a steadily growing influence. It was not, however, till the 10th century that Islam was established at Kashgar, under the Kara-Khanid Khanate. THE TURKIC RULE According to the 10th-century text, Hudud al-'alam, "the chiefs of Kashghar in the days of old were from the Qarluq, or from the Yaghma." The Karluks, Yaghmas and other tribes such as the Chigils formed the Karakhanids. The Karakhanid Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan converted to Islam in the 10th century and captured Kashgar. Kashgar was the capital of the Karakhanid state for a time but later the capital was moved to Balasaghun. During the latter part of the 10th century, the Muslim Karakhanids began a struggle against the Buddhist Kingdom of Khotan, and the Khotanese defeated the Karakhanids and captured Kashgar in 970. Chinese sources recorded the king of Khotan offering to send them a dancing elephant captured from Kashgar. Later in 1006, the Karakhanids of Kashgar under Yusuf Kadr Khan conquered Khotan. The Karakhanid Khanate however was beset with internal strife, and the khanate split into two, the Eastern and Western Karakhanid Khanates, with Kashgar falling within the domain of the Eastern Karakhanid state. In 1089, the Western Karakhanids fell under the control of the Seljuks, but the Eastern Karakhanids was for the most part independent. Both the Karakhanid states were defeated in the 12th century by the Kara-Khitans who captured Balasaghun, however Karakhanid rule continued in Kashgar under the suzerainty of the Kara-Khitans. The Kara-Khitan rulers followed a policy of religious tolerance, Islamic religious life continued uninterrupted and Kashgar was also a Nestorian metropolitan see. The last Karakhanid of Kashgar was killed in a revolt in 1211 by the city's notables. Kuchlug, a usurper of the throne of the Kara-Khitans, then attacked Kashgar which finally surrendered in 1214. THE MONGOLS The Kara-Khitai in their turn were swept away in 1219 by Genghis Khan. After his death, Kashgar came under the rule of the Chagatai Khans. Marco Polo visited the city, which he calls Cascar, about 1273-4 and recorded the presence of numerous Nestorian Christians, who had their own churches. Later In the 14th century, a Chagataid khan Tughluq Timur converted to Islam, and Islamic tradition began to reassert its ascendancy. In 1389−1390 Tamerlane ravaged Kashgar, Andijan and the intervening country. Kashgar endured a troubled time, and in 1514, on the invasion of the Khan Sultan Said, was destroyed by Mirza Ababakar, who with the aid of ten thousand men built a new fort with massive defences higher up on the banks of the Tuman river. The dynasty of the Chagatai Khans collapsed in 1572 with the division of the country among rival factions; soon after, two powerful Khoja factions, the White and Black Mountaineers (Ak Taghliq or Afaqi, and Kara Taghliq or Ishaqi), arose whose differences and war-making gestures, with the intermittent episode of the Oirats of Dzungaria, make up much of recorded history in Kashgar until 1759. The Dzungar Khanate conquered Kashgar and set up the Khoja as their puppet rulers. QING CONQUEST The Qing dynasty defeated the Dzungar Khanate during the Ten Great Campaigns and took control of Kashgar in 1759. The conquerors consolidated their authority by settling other ethnics emigrants in the vicinity of a Manchu garrison. Rumours flew around Central Asia that the Qing planned to launch expeditions towards Transoxiana and Samarkand, the chiefs of which sought assistance from the Afghan king Ahmed Shah Abdali. The alleged expedition never happened so Ahmad Shah withdrew his forces from Kokand. He also dispatched an ambassador to Beijing to discuss the situation of the Afaqi Khojas, but the representative was not well received, and Ahmed Shah was too busy fighting off the Sikhs to attempt to enforce his demands through arms. The Qing continued to hold Kashgar with occasional interruptions during the Afaqi Khoja revolts. One of the most serious of these occurred in 1827, when the city was taken by Jahanghir Khoja; Chang-lung, however, the Qing general of Ili, regained possession of Kashgar and the other rebellious cities in 1828. The Kokand Khanate raided Kashgar several times. A revolt in 1829 under Mahommed Ali Khan and Yusuf, brother of Jahanghir resulted in the concession of several important trade privileges to the Muslims of the district of Altishahr (the "six cities"), as it was then called. The area enjoyed relative calm until 1846 under the rule of Zahir-ud-din, the local Uyghur governor, but in that year a new Khoja revolt under Kath Tora led to his accession as the authoritarian ruler of the city. However, his reign was brief—at the end of seventy-five days, on the approach of the Chinese, he fled back to Khokand amid the jeers of the inhabitants. The last of the Khoja revolts (1857) was of about equal duration, and took place under Wali-Khan, who murdered the well-known traveler Adolf Schlagintweit. 1862 CHINESE HUI REVOLT The great Dungan revolt (1862–1877) involved insurrection among various Muslim ethnic groups. It broke out in 1862 in Gansu then spread rapidly to Dzungaria and through the line of towns in the Tarim Basin. Dungan troops based in Yarkand rose and in August 1864 massacred some seven thousand Chinese and their Manchu commander. The inhabitants of Kashgar, rising in their turn against their masters, invoked the aid of Sadik Beg, a Kyrgyz chief, who was reinforced by Buzurg Khan, the heir of Jahanghir Khoja, and his general Yakub Beg. The latter men were dispatched at Sadik’s request by the ruler of Khokand to raise what troops they could to aid his Muslim friends in Kashgar. Sadik Beg soon repented of having asked for a Khoja, and eventually marched against Kashgar, which by this time had succumbed to Buzurg Khan and Yakub Beg, but was defeated and driven back to Khokand. Buzurg Khan delivered himself up to indolence and debauchery, but Yakub Beg, with singular energy and perseverance, made himself master of Yangi Shahr, Yangi-Hissar, Yarkand and other towns, and eventually became sole master of the country, Buzurg Khan proving himself totally unfit for the post of ruler. With the overthrow of Chinese rule in 1865 by Yakub Beg (1820–1877), the manufacturing industries of Kashgar are supposed to have declined. Yaqub Beg entered into relations and signed treaties with the Russian Empire and the British Empire, but when he tried to get their support against China, he failed. Kashgar and the other cities of the Tarim Basin remained under Yakub Beg’s rule until May 1877, when he died at Korla. Thereafter Kashgaria was reconquered by the forces of the Qing general Zuo Zongtang during the Qing reconquest of Xinjiang. QING RULE There were eras in Xinjiang's history where intermarriage was common, "laxity" which set upon Uyghur women led them to marry Chinese men and not wear the veil in the period after Yaqub Beg's rule ended, it is also believed by Uyghurs that some Uyghurs have Han Chinese ancestry from historical intermarriage, such as those living in Turpan. Even though Muslim women are forbidden to marry non-Muslims in Islamic law, from 1880-1949 it was frequently violated in Xinjiang since Chinese men married Muslim Turki (Uyghur) women, a reason suggested by foriengers that it was due to the women being poor, while the Turki women who married Chinese were labelled as whores by the Turki community, these marriages were illegitimate according to Islamic law but the women obtained benefits from marrying Chinese men since the Chinese defended them from Islamic authorities so the women were not subjected to the tax on prostitution and were able to save their income for themselves. Chinese men gave their Turki wives privileges which Turki men's wives did not have, since the wives of Chinese did not have to wear a veil and a Chinese man in Kashgar once beat a mullah who tried to force his Turki Kashgari wife to veil. The Turki women also benefited in that they were not subjected to any legal binding to their Chinese husbands so they could make their Chinese husbands provide them with as much their money as she wanted for her relatives and herself since otherwise the women could just leave, and the property of Chinese men was left to their Turki wives after they died. Turki women considered Turki men to be inferior husbands to Chinese and Hindus. Because they were viewed as "impure", Islamic cemeteries banned the Turki wives of Chinese men from being buried within them, the Turki women got around this problem by giving shrines donations and buying a grave in other towns. Besides Chinese men, other men such as Hindus, Armenians, Jews, Russians, and Badakhshanis intermarried with local Turki women. The local society accepted the Turki women and Chinese men's mixed offspring as their own people despite the marriages being in violation of Islamic law. Turki women also conducted temporary marriages with Chinese men such as Chinese soldiers temporarily stationed around them as soldiers for tours of duty, after which the Chinese men returned to their own cities, with the Chinese men selling their mixed daughters with the Turki women to his comrades, taking their sons with them if they could afford it but leaving them if they couldn't, and selling their temporary Turki wife to a comrade or leaving her behind. An anti-Russian uproar broke out when Russian customs officials, 3 Cossacks and a Russian courier invited local Turki (Uyghur) prostitutes to a party in January 1902 in Kashgar, this caused a massive brawl by the inflamed local Turki Muslim populace against the Russians on the pretense of protecting Muslim women because there was anti-Russian sentiment being built up, even though morality was not strict in Kashgar, the local Turki Muslims violently clashed with the Russians before they were dispersed by guards, the Chinese sought to end to tensions to prevent the Russians from building up a pretext to invade. After the riot, the Russians sent troops to Sarikol in Tashkurghan and demanded that the Sarikol postal services be placed under Russian supervision, the locals of Sarikol believed that the Russians would seize the entire district from the Chinese and send more soldiers even after the Russians tried to negotiate with the Begs of Sarikol and sway them to their side, they failed since the Sarikoli officials and authorities demanded in a petition to the Amban of Yarkand that they be evacuated to Yarkand to avoid being harassed by the Russians and objected to the Russian presence in Sarikol, the Sarikolis did not believe the Russian claim that they would leave them alone and only involved themselves in the mail service. Many of the young Kashgari women were most attractive in appearance, and some of the little girls quite lovely, their plaits of long hair falling from under a jaunty little embroidered cap, their big dark eyes, flashing teeth and piquant olive faces reminding me of Italian or Spanish children. One most beautiful boy stands out in my memory. He was clad in a new shirt and trousers of flowered pink, his crimson velvet cap embroidered with gold, and as he smiled and salaamed to us I thought he looked like a fairy prince. The women wear their hair in two or five plaits much thickened and lengthened by the addition of yak's hair, but the children in several tiny plaits. The peasants are fairly well off, as the soil is rich, the abundant water-supply free, and the taxation comparatively light. It was always interesting to meet them taking their live stock into market. Flocks of sheep with tiny lambs, black and white, pattered along the dusty road; here a goat followed its master like a dog, trotting behind the diminutive ass which the farmer bestrode; or boys, clad in the whity-brown native cloth, shouted incessantly at donkeys almost invisible under enormous loads of forage, or carried fowls and ducks in bunches head downwards, a sight that always made me long to come to the rescue of the luckless birds. It was pleasant to see the women riding alone on horseback, managing their mounts to perfection. They formed a sharp contrast to their Persian sisters, who either sit behind their husbands or have their steeds led by the bridle; and instead of keeping silence in public, as is the rule for the shrouded women of Iran, these farmers' wives chaffered and haggled with the men in the bazar outside the city, transacting business with their veils thrown back. Certainly the mullas do their best to keep the fair sex in their place, and are in the habit of beating those who show their faces in the Great Bazar. But I was told that poetic justice had lately been meted out to one of these upholders of the law of Islam, for by mistake he chastised a Kashgari woman married to a Chinaman, whereupon the irate husband set upon him with a big stick and castigated him soundly. That a Muslim should take in marriage one of alien faith is not objected to; it is rather deemed a meritorious act thus to bring an unbeliever to the true religion. The Muslim woman, on the other hand, must not be given in marriage to a non-Muslim; such a union is regarded as the most heinous of sins. In this matter, however, compromises are sometimes made with heaven: the marriage of a Turki princess with the emperor Ch'ien-lung has already been referred to; and, when the present writer passed through Minjol (a day's journey west of Kashgar) in 1902, a Chinese with a Turki wife (? concubine) was presented to him. FIRST EAST TURKESTAN REPUBLIC Kashgar was the scene of continual battles from 1933 to 1934. Ma Shaowu, a Chinese Muslim, was the Tao-yin of Kashgar, and he fought against Uyghur rebels. He was joined by another Chinese Muslim general, Ma Zhancang. BATTLE OF KASHGAR (1933) Uighur and Kirghiz forces, led by the Bughra brothers and Tawfiq Bay, attempted to take the New City of Kashgar from Chinese Muslim troops under General Ma Zhancang. They were defeated. Tawfiq Bey, a Syrian Arab traveler, who held the title Sayyid (descendent of prophet Muhammed) and arrived at Kashgar on August 26, 1933, was shot in the stomach by the Chinese Muslim troops in September. Previously Ma Zhancang arranged to have the Uighur leader Timur Beg killed and beheaded on August 9, 1933, displaying his head outside of Id Kah Mosque. Han chinese troops commanded by Brigadier Yang were absorbed into Ma Zhancang's army. A number of Han chinese officers were spotted wearing the green uniforms of Ma Zhancang's unit of the 36th division, presumably they had converted to Islam. BATTLE OF KASHGAR (1934) The 36th division General Ma Fuyuan led a Chinese Muslim army to storm Kashgar on February 6, 1934, attacking the Uighur and Kirghiz rebels of the First East Turkestan Republic. He freed another 36th division general, Ma Zhancang, who was trapped with his Chinese Muslim and Han Chinese troops in Kashgar New City by the Uighurs and Kirghiz since May 22, 1933. In January, 1934, Ma Zhancang's Chinese Muslim troops repulsed six Uighur attacks, launched by Khoja Niyaz, who arrived at the city on January 13, 1934, inflicting massive casualties on the Uighur forces. From 2,000 to 8,000 Uighur civilians in Kashgar Old City were massacred by Tungans in February, 1934, in revenge for the Kizil massacre, after retreating of Uighur forces from the city to Yengi Hisar. The Chinese Muslim and 36th division Chief General Ma Zhongying, who arrived at Kashgar on April 7, 1934, gave a speech at Id Kah Mosque in April, reminding the Uighurs to be loyal to the Republic of China government at Nanjing. Several British citizens at the British consulate were killed or wounded by the 36th division on March 16, 1934. PEOPLE´S REPUBLIC OF CHINA Kashgar was incorporated into the People's Republic of China in 1949. During the Cultural Revolution, one of the largest statues of Mao in China was built in Kashgar, near People's Square. In 1986, the Chinese government designated Kashgar a "city of historical and cultural significance". Kashgar and surrounding regions have been the site of Uyghur unrest since the 1990s. In 2008, two Uyghur men carried out a vehicular, IED and knife attack against police officers. In 2009, development of Kashgar's old town accelerated after the revelations of the deadly role of faulty architecture during the 2008 Sichuan earthquake. Many of the old houses in the old town were built without regulation, and as a result, officials found them to be overcrowded and non-compliant with fire and earthquake codes. When the plan started, 42% of the city's residents lived in the old town. With compensation, residents of faulty buildings are being counseled to move to newer, safer buildings that will replace the historic structures in the $448 million plan, including high-rise apartments, plazas, and reproductions of ancient Islamic architecture. The European Parliament issued a resolution in 2011 calling for "culture-sensitive methods of renovation." The International Scientific Committee on Earthen Architectural Heritage (ISCEAH) has expressed concern over the demolition and reconstruction of historic buildings. ISCEAH has, additionally, urged the implementation of techniques utilized elsewhere in the world to address earthquake vulnerability. Following the July 2009 Urumqi riots, the government focused on local economic development in an attempt to ameliorate ethnic tensions in the greater Xinjiang region. Kashgar was made into a Special Economic Zone in 2010, the first such zone in China's far west. In 2011, a spate of violence over two days killed dozens of people. By May 2012 two-thirds of the old city had been demolished, fulfilling "political as well as economic goals." In July 2014 the Imam of the Id Kah Mosque, Juma Tayir, was assassinated in Kashgar. CLIMATE Kashgar features a desert climate (Köppen BWk) with hot summers and cold winters, with large temperature differences between those two seasons: The monthly 24-hour average temperature ranges from −5.3 °C in January to 25.6 °C in July, while the annual mean is 11.84 °C. Spring is long and arrives quickly, while fall is somewhat brief in comparison. Kashgar is one of the driest cities on the planet, averaging only 64 millimetres of precipitation per year. The city’s wettest month, July, only sees on average 9.1 millimetres of rain. Because of the extremely arid conditions, snowfall is rare, despite the cold winters. Records have been as low as −24.4 °C in January and up to 40.1 °C in July. The frost-free period averages 215 days. With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 50% in March to 70% in September, the city receives 2,726 hours of bright sunshine annually. DEMOGRAPHICS Kashgar is predominately peopled by Muslim Uyghurs. Compared to Ürümqi, Xinjiang's capital and largest city, Kashgar is less industrial and has significantly fewer Han Chinese residents. ECONOMICS AND SOCIETY The city has a very important Sunday market. Thousands of farmers from the surrounding fertile lands come into the city to sell a wide variety of fruit and vegetables. Kashgar’s livestock market is also very lively. Silk and carpets made in Hotan are sold at bazaars, as well as local crafts, such as copper teapots and wooden jewellery boxes. In order to boost the economy in Kashgar region, the government classified the area as the sixth Special Economic Zone of China in May 2010. Mahmud al-Kashgari (Turkish: Kâşgarlı Mahmud) (Mahmut from Kashgar) wrote the first Turkic–Arabic Exemplary Dictionary called Divan-ı Lugat-it Türk[citation needed] The movie The Kite Runner was filmed in Kashgar. Kashgar and the surrounding countryside stood in for Kabul and Afghanistan, since filming in Afghanistan was not possible due to safety and security reasons. SIGHTS Kashgar's Old City has been called "the best-preserved example of a traditional Islamic city to be found anywhere in Central Asia". It is estimated to attract more than one million tourists annually. - Id Kah Mosque, the largest mosque in China, is located in the heart of the city. - People's Park, the main public park in central Kashgar. - An 18 m high statue of Mao Zedong in Kashgar is one of the few large-scale statues of Mao remaining in China. - The tomb of Afaq Khoja in Kashgar is considered the holiest Muslim site in Xinjiang. Built in the 17th century, the tiled mausoleum 5 km northeast of the city centre also contains the tombs of five generations of his family. Abakh was a powerful ruler, controlling Khotan, Yarkand, Korla, Kucha and Aksu as well as Kashgar. Among some Uyghur Muslims, he was considered a great Saint (Aulia). - Sunday Market in Kashgar is renowned as the biggest market in central Asia; a pivotal trading point along the Silk Road where goods have been traded for more than 2,000 years. The market is open every day but Sunday is the largest. TRANSPORTATION AIR Kashgar Airport serves mainly domestic flights, the majority of them from Urumqi. The only scheduled international flights are passenger and cargo services with Pakistan's capital Islamabad. RAIL Kashgar has the westernmost railway station in China. It is connected to the rest of China's rail network via the Southern Xinjiang Railway, which was built in December 1999. Kashgar–Hotan Railway opened for passenger traffic in June 2011, and connected Kashgar with cities in the southern Tarim Basin including Shache (Yarkand), Yecheng (Kargilik) and Hotan. Travel time to Urumqi from Kashgar is approximately 25 hours, while travel time to Hotan is approximately ten hours. The investigation work of a further extension of the railway line to Pakistan has begun. In November 2009, Pakistan and China agreed to set up a joint venture to do a feasibility study of the proposed rail link via the Khunjerab Pass. Proposals for a rail connection to Osh in Kyrgyzstan have also been discussed at various levels since at least 1996. In 2012, a standard gauge railway from Kashgar via Tajikistan and Afghanistan to Iran and beyond has been proposed. ROAD The Karakorum highway (KKH) links Islamabad, Pakistan with Kashgar over the Khunjerab Pass. The China–Pakistan Economic Corridor is a multibillion-dollar project was that will upgrade transport links between China and Pakistan, including the upgrades to the Karakorum highway. Bus routes exist for passenger travel south into Pakistan. Kyrgyzstan is also accessible from Kashgar, via the Torugart Pass and Irkeshtam Pass; as of summer 2007, daily bus service connects Kashgar with Bishkek’s Western Bus Terminal. Kashgar is also located on China National Highways G314 (which runs to Khunjerab Pass on the Sino−Pakistani border, and, in the opposite direction, towards Ürümqi), and G315, which runs to Xining, Qinghai from Kashgar. WIKIPEDIA

Kashgar is an oasis city with an approximate population of 350,000. It is the westernmost city in China, located near the border with Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. Kashgar has a rich history of over 2,000 years and served as a trading post and strategically important city on the Silk Road between China, the Middle East, and Europe. Kashgar is part of the China–Pakistan Economic Corridor. Located historically at the convergence point of widely varying cultures and empires, Kashgar has been under the rule of the Chinese, Turkic, Mongol, and Tibetan empires. The city has also been the site of an extraordinary number of battles between various groups of people on the steppes. Now administered as a county-level unit of the People's Republic of China, Kashgar is the administrative centre of its eponymous prefecture in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region which has an area of 162,000 square kilometres and a population of approximately 3.5 million. The city's urban area covers 15 km2, though its administrative area extends over 555 km2. NAME The modern Chinese name is 喀什 (Kāshí), a shortened form of the longer and less-frequently used (simplified Chinese: 喀什噶尔; traditional Chinese: 喀什噶爾; pinyin: Kāshígé’ěr; Uyghur: قەشقەر‎). Ptolemy (AD 90-168), in his Geography, Chapter 15.3A, refers to Kashgar as “Kasi”. Its western and probably indigenous name is the Kāš ("rock"), to which the East Iranian -γar ("mountain"); cf. Pashto and Middle Persian gar/ġar, from Old Persian/Pahlavi girīwa ("hill; ridge (of a mountain)") was attached. Alternative historical Romanizations for "Kashgar" include Cascar and Cashgar. Non-native names for the city, such as the old Chinese name Shule 疏勒 and Tibetan Śu-lig may have originated as an attempts to transcribe the Sanskrit name for Kashgar, Śrīkrīrāti ("fortunate hospitality") Variant transcriptions of the official Uyghur: يېڭىشەھەر‎ include: K̂äxk̂är or Kaxgar, as well as Jangi-schahr, Kashgar Yangi Shahr, K’o-shih-ka-erh, K’o-shih-ka-erh-hsin-ch’eng, Ko-shih-ka-erh-hui-ch’eng, K’o-shih-ko-erh-hsin-ch’eng, New Kashgar, Sheleh, Shuleh, Shulen, Shu-lo, Su-lo, Su-lo-chen, Su-lo-hsien, Yangi-shaar, Yangi-shahr, Yangishar, Yéngisheher, Yengixəh̨ər and Еңишәһәр. HISTORY HAN DYNASTY The earliest mention of Kashgar occurs when a Chinese Han dynasty envoy traveled the Northern Silk Road to explore lands to the west. Another early mention of Kashgar is during the Former Han (also known as the Western Han dynasty), when in 76 BC the Chinese conquered the Xiongnu, Yutian (Khotan), Sulei (Kashgar), and a group of states in the Tarim basin almost up to the foot of the Tian Shan range. Ptolemy speaks of Scythia beyond the Imaus, which is in a “Kasia Regio”, probably exhibiting the name from which Kashgar and Kashgaria (often applied to the district) are formed. The country’s people practised Zoroastrianism and Buddhism before the coming of Islam. In the Book of Han, which covers the period between 125 BC and 23 AD, it is recorded that there were 1,510 households, 18,647 people and 2,000 persons able to bear arms. By the time covered by the Book of the Later Han (roughly 25 to 170 AD), it had grown to 21,000 households and had 3,000 men able to bear arms. The Book of the Later Han provides a wealth of detail on developments in the region: "In the period of Emperor Wu [140-87 BC], the Western Regions1 were under the control of the Interior [China]. They numbered thirty-six kingdoms. The Imperial Government established a Colonel [in charge of] Envoys there to direct and protect these countries. Emperor Xuan [73-49 BC] changed this title [in 59 BC] to Protector-General. Emperor Yuan [40-33 BC] installed two Wuji Colonels to take charge of the agricultural garrisons on the frontiers of the king of Nearer Jushi [Turpan]. During the time of Emperor Ai [6 BC-AD 1] and Emperor Ping [AD 1-5], the principalities of the Western Regions split up and formed fifty-five kingdoms. Wang Mang, after he usurped the Throne [in AD 9], demoted and changed their kings and marquises. Following this, the Western Regions became resentful, and rebelled. They, therefore, broke off all relations with the Interior [China] and, all together, submitted to the Xiongnu again. The Xiongnu collected oppressively heavy taxes and the kingdoms were not able to support their demands. In the middle of the Jianwu period [AD 25-56], they each [Shanshan and Yarkand in 38, and 18 kingdoms in 45], sent envoys to ask if they could submit to the Interior [China], and to express their desire for a Protector-General. Emperor Guangwu, decided that because the Empire was not yet settled [after a long period of civil war], he had no time for outside affairs, and [therefore] finally refused his consent [in AD 45]. In the meantime, the Xiongnu became weaker. The king of Suoju [Yarkand], named Xian, wiped out several kingdoms. After Xian’s death [c. AD 62], they began to attack and fight each other. Xiao Yuan [Tura], Jingjue [Cadota], Ronglu [Niya], and Qiemo [Cherchen] were annexed by Shanshan [the Lop Nur region]. Qule [south of Keriya] and Pishan [modern Pishan or Guma] were conquered and fully occupied by Yutian [Khotan]. Yuli [Fukang], Danhuan, Guhu [Dawan Cheng], and Wutanzili were destroyed by Jushi [Turpan and Jimasa]. Later these kingdoms were re-established. During the Yongping period [AD 58-75], the Northern Xiongnu forced several countries to help them plunder the commanderies and districts of Hexi. The gates of the towns stayed shut in broad daylight." And, more particularly in reference to Kashgar itself, is the following record: "In the sixteenth Yongping year of Emperor Ming 73, Jian, the king of Qiuci (Kucha), attacked and killed Cheng, the king of Shule (Kashgar). Then he appointed the Qiuci (Kucha) Marquis of the Left, Douti, King of Shule (Kashgar). ‹See TfD› In winter 73, the Han sent the Major Ban Chao who captured and bound Douti. He appointed Zhong, the son of the elder brother of Cheng, to be king of Shule (Kashgar). Zhong later rebelled. (Ban) Chao attacked and beheaded him." THE KUSHANS The Book of the Later Han also gives the only extant historical record of Yuezhi or Kushan involvement in the Kashgar oasis: "During the Yuanchu period (114-120) in the reign of Emperor, the king of Shule (Kashgar), exiled his maternal uncle Chenpan to the Yuezhi (Kushans) for some offence. The king of the Yuezhi became very fond of him. Later, Anguo died without leaving a son. His mother directed the government of the kingdom. She agreed with the people of the country to put Yifu (lit. “posthumous child”), who was the son of a full younger brother of Chenpan on the throne as king of Shule (Kashgar). Chenpan heard of this and appealed to the Yuezhi (Kushan) king, saying: "Anguo had no son. His relative (Yifu) is weak. If one wants to put on the throne a member of (Anguo’s) mother’s family, I am Yifu’s paternal uncle, it is I who should be king." The Yuezhi (Kushans) then sent soldiers to escort him back to Shule (Kashgar). The people had previously respected and been fond of Chenpan. Besides, they dreaded the Yuezhi (Kushans). They immediately took the seal and ribbon from Yifu and went to Chenpan, and made him king. Yifu was given the title of Marquis of the town of Pangao [90 li, or 37 km, from Shule]. ‹See TfD› Then Suoju (Yarkand) continued to resist Yutian (Khotan), and put themselves under Shule (Kashgar). Thus Shule (Kashgar), became powerful and a rival to Qiuci (Kucha) and Yutian (Khotan)." However, it was not very long before the Chinese began to reassert their authority in the region: “In the second Yongjian year (127), during Emperor Shun’s reign, Chenpan sent an envoy to respectfully present offerings. The Emperor bestowed on Chenpan the title of Great Commandant-in-Chief for the Han. Chenxun, who was the son of his elder brother, was appointed Temporary Major of the Kingdom. ‹See TfD› In the fifth year (130), Chenpan sent his son to serve the Emperor and, along with envoys from Dayuan (Ferghana) and Suoju (Yarkand), brought tribute and offerings.” From an earlier part of the same text comes the following addition: “In the first Yangjia year (132), Xu You sent the king of Shule (Kashgar), Chenpan, who with 20,000 men, attacked and defeated Yutian (Khotan). He beheaded several hundred people, and released his soldiers to plunder freely. He replaced the king [of Jumi] by installing Chengguo from the family of [the previous king] Xing, and then he returned.”[38] Then the first passage continues: “In the second Yangjia year (133), Chenpan again made offerings (including) a lion and zebu cattle. ‹See TfD› Then, during Emperor Ling’s reign, in the first Jianning year, the king of Shule (Kashgar) and Commandant-in-Chief for the Han (i.e. presumably Chenpan), was shot while hunting by the youngest of his paternal uncles, Hede. Hede named himself king. ‹See TfD› In the third year (170), Meng Tuo, the Inspector of Liangzhou, sent the Provincial Officer Ren She, commanding five hundred soldiers from Dunhuang, with the Wuji Major Cao Kuan, and Chief Clerk of the Western Regions, Zhang Yan, brought troops from Yanqi (Karashahr), Qiuci (Kucha), and the Nearer and Further States of Jushi (Turpan and Jimasa), altogether numbering more than 30,000, to punish Shule (Kashgar). They attacked the town of Zhenzhong [Arach − near Maralbashi] but, having stayed for more than forty days without being able to subdue it, they withdrew. Following this, the kings of Shule (Kashgar) killed one another repeatedly while the Imperial Government was unable to prevent it.” THREE KINGDOMS TO THE SUI These centuries are marked by a general silence in sources on Kashgar and the Tarim Basin. The Weilüe, composed in the second third of the 3rd century, mentions a number of states as dependencies of Kashgar: the kingdom of Zhenzhong (Arach?), the kingdom of Suoju (Yarkand), the kingdom of Jieshi, the kingdom of Qusha, the kingdom of Xiye (Khargalik), the kingdom of Yinai (Tashkurghan), the kingdom of Manli (modern Karasul), the kingdom of Yire (Mazar − also known as Tágh Nák and Tokanak), the kingdom of Yuling, the kingdom of Juandu (‘Tax Control’ − near modern Irkeshtam), the kingdom of Xiuxiu (‘Excellent Rest Stop’ − near Karakavak), and the kingdom of Qin. However, much of the information on the Western Regions contained in the Weilüe seems to have ended roughly about (170), near the end of Han power. So, we can’t be sure that this is a reference to the state of affairs during the Cao Wei (220-265), or whether it refers to the situation before the civil war during the Later Han when China lost touch with most foreign countries and came to be divided into three separate kingdoms. Chapter 30 of the Records of the Three Kingdoms says that after the beginning of the Wei Dynasty (220) the states of the Western Regions did not arrive as before, except for the larger ones such as Kucha, Khotan, Kangju, Wusun, Kashgar, Yuezhi, Shanshan and Turpan, who are said to have come to present tribute every year, as in Han times. In 270, four states from the Western Regions were said to have presented tribute: Karashahr, Turpan, Shanshan, and Kucha. Some wooden documents from Niya seem to indicate that contacts were also maintained with Kashgar and Khotan around this time. In 422, according to the Songshu, ch. 98, the king of Shanshan, Bilong, came to the court and "the thirty-six states in the Western Regions" all swore their allegiance and presented tribute. It must be assumed that these 36 states included Kashgar. The "Songji" of the Zizhi Tongjian records that in the 5th month of 435, nine states: Kucha, Kashgar, Wusun, Yueban, Tashkurghan, Shanshan, Karashahr, Turpan and Sute all came to the Wei court. In 439, according to the Weishu, ch. 4A, Shanshan, Kashgar and Karashahr sent envoys to present tribute. According to the Weishu, ch. 102, Chapter on the Western Regions, the kingdoms of Kucha, Kashgar, Wusun, Yueban, Tashkurghan, Shanshan, Karashahr, Turpan and Sute all began sending envoys to present tribute in the Taiyuan reign period (435-440). In 453 Kashgar sent envoys to present tribute (Weishu, ch. 5), and again in 455. An embassy sent during the reign of Wencheng Di (452-466) from the king of Kashgar presented a supposed sacred relic of the Buddha; a dress which was incombustible. In 507 Kashgar, is said to have sent envoys in both the 9th and 10th months (Weishu, ch. 8). In 512, Kashgar sent envoys in the 1st and 5th months. (Weishu, ch. 8). Early in the 6th century Kashgar is included among the many territories controlled by the Yeda or Hephthalite Huns, but their empire collapsed at the onslaught of the Western Turks between 563 and 567 who then probably gained control over Kashgar and most of the states in the Tarim Basin. TANG DYNASTY The founding of the Tang dynasty in 618 saw the beginning of a prolonged struggle between China and the Western Turks for control of the Tarim Basin. In 635, the Tang Annals reported an emissary from the king of Kashgar to the Tang capital. In 639 there was a second emissary bringing products of Kashgar as a token of submission to the Tang state. Buddhist scholar Xuanzang passed through Kashgar (which he referred to as Ka-sha) in 644 on his return journey from India to China. The Buddhist religion, then beginning to decay in India, was active in Kashgar. Xuanzang recorded that they flattened their babies heads, tattooed their bodies and had green eyes. He reported that Kashgar had abundant crops, fruits and flowers, wove fine woolen stuffs and rugs. Their writing system had been adapted from Indian script but their language was different from that of other countries. The inhabitants were sincere Buddhist adherents and there were some hundreds of monasteries with more than 10,000 followers, all members of the Sarvastivadin School. At around the same era, Nestorian Christians were establishing bishoprics at Herat, Merv and Samarkand, whence they subsequently proceeded to Kashgar, and finally to China proper itself. In 646, the Turkic Kagan asked for the hand of a Tang Chinese princess, and in return the Emperor promised Kucha, Khotan, Kashgar, Karashahr and Sarikol as a marriage gift, but this did not happen as planned. In a series of campaigns between 652 and 658, with the help of the Uyghurs, the Chinese finally defeated the Western Turk tribes and took control of all their domains, including the Tarim Basin kingdoms. Karakhoja was annexed in 640, Karashahr during campaigns in 644 and 648, and Kucha fell in 648. In 662 a rebellion broke out in the Western Regions and a Chinese army sent to control it was defeated by the Tibetans south of Kashgar. After another defeat of the Tang Chinese forces in 670, the Tibetans gained control of the whole region and completely subjugated Kashgar in 676-8 and retained possession of it until 692, when the Tang dynasty regained control of all their former territories, and retained it for the next fifty years. In 722 Kashgar sent 4,000 troops to assist the Chinese to force the "Tibetans out of "Little Bolu" or Gilgit. In 728, the king of Kashgar was awarded a brevet by the Chinese emperor. In 739, the Tangshu relates that the governor of the Chinese garrison in Kashgar, with the help of Ferghana, was interfering in the affairs of the Turgesh tribes as far as Talas. In 751 the Chinese were defeated by an Arab army in the Battle of Talas. The An Lushan Rebellion led to the decline of Tang influence in Central Asia due to the fact that the Tang dynasty was forced to withdraw its troops from the region to fight An Lushan. The Tibetans cut all communication between China and the West in 766. Soon after the Chinese pilgrim monk Wukong passed through Kashgar in 753. He again reached Kashgar on his return trip from India in 786 and mentions a Chinese deputy governor as well as the local king. BATTLES WITH ARAB CALIPHATE In 711, the Arabs invaded Kashgar, but did not hold the city for any length of time. Kashgar and Turkestan lent assistance to the reigning queen of Bukhara, to enable her to repel the Arabs. Although the Muslim religion from the very commencement sustained checks, it nevertheless made its weight felt upon the independent states of Turkestan to the north and east, and thus acquired a steadily growing influence. It was not, however, till the 10th century that Islam was established at Kashgar, under the Kara-Khanid Khanate. THE TURKIC RULE According to the 10th-century text, Hudud al-'alam, "the chiefs of Kashghar in the days of old were from the Qarluq, or from the Yaghma." The Karluks, Yaghmas and other tribes such as the Chigils formed the Karakhanids. The Karakhanid Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan converted to Islam in the 10th century and captured Kashgar. Kashgar was the capital of the Karakhanid state for a time but later the capital was moved to Balasaghun. During the latter part of the 10th century, the Muslim Karakhanids began a struggle against the Buddhist Kingdom of Khotan, and the Khotanese defeated the Karakhanids and captured Kashgar in 970. Chinese sources recorded the king of Khotan offering to send them a dancing elephant captured from Kashgar. Later in 1006, the Karakhanids of Kashgar under Yusuf Kadr Khan conquered Khotan. The Karakhanid Khanate however was beset with internal strife, and the khanate split into two, the Eastern and Western Karakhanid Khanates, with Kashgar falling within the domain of the Eastern Karakhanid state. In 1089, the Western Karakhanids fell under the control of the Seljuks, but the Eastern Karakhanids was for the most part independent. Both the Karakhanid states were defeated in the 12th century by the Kara-Khitans who captured Balasaghun, however Karakhanid rule continued in Kashgar under the suzerainty of the Kara-Khitans. The Kara-Khitan rulers followed a policy of religious tolerance, Islamic religious life continued uninterrupted and Kashgar was also a Nestorian metropolitan see. The last Karakhanid of Kashgar was killed in a revolt in 1211 by the city's notables. Kuchlug, a usurper of the throne of the Kara-Khitans, then attacked Kashgar which finally surrendered in 1214. THE MONGOLS The Kara-Khitai in their turn were swept away in 1219 by Genghis Khan. After his death, Kashgar came under the rule of the Chagatai Khans. Marco Polo visited the city, which he calls Cascar, about 1273-4 and recorded the presence of numerous Nestorian Christians, who had their own churches. Later In the 14th century, a Chagataid khan Tughluq Timur converted to Islam, and Islamic tradition began to reassert its ascendancy. In 1389−1390 Tamerlane ravaged Kashgar, Andijan and the intervening country. Kashgar endured a troubled time, and in 1514, on the invasion of the Khan Sultan Said, was destroyed by Mirza Ababakar, who with the aid of ten thousand men built a new fort with massive defences higher up on the banks of the Tuman river. The dynasty of the Chagatai Khans collapsed in 1572 with the division of the country among rival factions; soon after, two powerful Khoja factions, the White and Black Mountaineers (Ak Taghliq or Afaqi, and Kara Taghliq or Ishaqi), arose whose differences and war-making gestures, with the intermittent episode of the Oirats of Dzungaria, make up much of recorded history in Kashgar until 1759. The Dzungar Khanate conquered Kashgar and set up the Khoja as their puppet rulers. QING CONQUEST The Qing dynasty defeated the Dzungar Khanate during the Ten Great Campaigns and took control of Kashgar in 1759. The conquerors consolidated their authority by settling other ethnics emigrants in the vicinity of a Manchu garrison. Rumours flew around Central Asia that the Qing planned to launch expeditions towards Transoxiana and Samarkand, the chiefs of which sought assistance from the Afghan king Ahmed Shah Abdali. The alleged expedition never happened so Ahmad Shah withdrew his forces from Kokand. He also dispatched an ambassador to Beijing to discuss the situation of the Afaqi Khojas, but the representative was not well received, and Ahmed Shah was too busy fighting off the Sikhs to attempt to enforce his demands through arms. The Qing continued to hold Kashgar with occasional interruptions during the Afaqi Khoja revolts. One of the most serious of these occurred in 1827, when the city was taken by Jahanghir Khoja; Chang-lung, however, the Qing general of Ili, regained possession of Kashgar and the other rebellious cities in 1828. The Kokand Khanate raided Kashgar several times. A revolt in 1829 under Mahommed Ali Khan and Yusuf, brother of Jahanghir resulted in the concession of several important trade privileges to the Muslims of the district of Altishahr (the "six cities"), as it was then called. The area enjoyed relative calm until 1846 under the rule of Zahir-ud-din, the local Uyghur governor, but in that year a new Khoja revolt under Kath Tora led to his accession as the authoritarian ruler of the city. However, his reign was brief—at the end of seventy-five days, on the approach of the Chinese, he fled back to Khokand amid the jeers of the inhabitants. The last of the Khoja revolts (1857) was of about equal duration, and took place under Wali-Khan, who murdered the well-known traveler Adolf Schlagintweit. 1862 CHINESE HUI REVOLT The great Dungan revolt (1862–1877) involved insurrection among various Muslim ethnic groups. It broke out in 1862 in Gansu then spread rapidly to Dzungaria and through the line of towns in the Tarim Basin. Dungan troops based in Yarkand rose and in August 1864 massacred some seven thousand Chinese and their Manchu commander. The inhabitants of Kashgar, rising in their turn against their masters, invoked the aid of Sadik Beg, a Kyrgyz chief, who was reinforced by Buzurg Khan, the heir of Jahanghir Khoja, and his general Yakub Beg. The latter men were dispatched at Sadik’s request by the ruler of Khokand to raise what troops they could to aid his Muslim friends in Kashgar. Sadik Beg soon repented of having asked for a Khoja, and eventually marched against Kashgar, which by this time had succumbed to Buzurg Khan and Yakub Beg, but was defeated and driven back to Khokand. Buzurg Khan delivered himself up to indolence and debauchery, but Yakub Beg, with singular energy and perseverance, made himself master of Yangi Shahr, Yangi-Hissar, Yarkand and other towns, and eventually became sole master of the country, Buzurg Khan proving himself totally unfit for the post of ruler. With the overthrow of Chinese rule in 1865 by Yakub Beg (1820–1877), the manufacturing industries of Kashgar are supposed to have declined. Yaqub Beg entered into relations and signed treaties with the Russian Empire and the British Empire, but when he tried to get their support against China, he failed. Kashgar and the other cities of the Tarim Basin remained under Yakub Beg’s rule until May 1877, when he died at Korla. Thereafter Kashgaria was reconquered by the forces of the Qing general Zuo Zongtang during the Qing reconquest of Xinjiang. QING RULE There were eras in Xinjiang's history where intermarriage was common, "laxity" which set upon Uyghur women led them to marry Chinese men and not wear the veil in the period after Yaqub Beg's rule ended, it is also believed by Uyghurs that some Uyghurs have Han Chinese ancestry from historical intermarriage, such as those living in Turpan. Even though Muslim women are forbidden to marry non-Muslims in Islamic law, from 1880-1949 it was frequently violated in Xinjiang since Chinese men married Muslim Turki (Uyghur) women, a reason suggested by foriengers that it was due to the women being poor, while the Turki women who married Chinese were labelled as whores by the Turki community, these marriages were illegitimate according to Islamic law but the women obtained benefits from marrying Chinese men since the Chinese defended them from Islamic authorities so the women were not subjected to the tax on prostitution and were able to save their income for themselves. Chinese men gave their Turki wives privileges which Turki men's wives did not have, since the wives of Chinese did not have to wear a veil and a Chinese man in Kashgar once beat a mullah who tried to force his Turki Kashgari wife to veil. The Turki women also benefited in that they were not subjected to any legal binding to their Chinese husbands so they could make their Chinese husbands provide them with as much their money as she wanted for her relatives and herself since otherwise the women could just leave, and the property of Chinese men was left to their Turki wives after they died. Turki women considered Turki men to be inferior husbands to Chinese and Hindus. Because they were viewed as "impure", Islamic cemeteries banned the Turki wives of Chinese men from being buried within them, the Turki women got around this problem by giving shrines donations and buying a grave in other towns. Besides Chinese men, other men such as Hindus, Armenians, Jews, Russians, and Badakhshanis intermarried with local Turki women. The local society accepted the Turki women and Chinese men's mixed offspring as their own people despite the marriages being in violation of Islamic law. Turki women also conducted temporary marriages with Chinese men such as Chinese soldiers temporarily stationed around them as soldiers for tours of duty, after which the Chinese men returned to their own cities, with the Chinese men selling their mixed daughters with the Turki women to his comrades, taking their sons with them if they could afford it but leaving them if they couldn't, and selling their temporary Turki wife to a comrade or leaving her behind. An anti-Russian uproar broke out when Russian customs officials, 3 Cossacks and a Russian courier invited local Turki (Uyghur) prostitutes to a party in January 1902 in Kashgar, this caused a massive brawl by the inflamed local Turki Muslim populace against the Russians on the pretense of protecting Muslim women because there was anti-Russian sentiment being built up, even though morality was not strict in Kashgar, the local Turki Muslims violently clashed with the Russians before they were dispersed by guards, the Chinese sought to end to tensions to prevent the Russians from building up a pretext to invade. After the riot, the Russians sent troops to Sarikol in Tashkurghan and demanded that the Sarikol postal services be placed under Russian supervision, the locals of Sarikol believed that the Russians would seize the entire district from the Chinese and send more soldiers even after the Russians tried to negotiate with the Begs of Sarikol and sway them to their side, they failed since the Sarikoli officials and authorities demanded in a petition to the Amban of Yarkand that they be evacuated to Yarkand to avoid being harassed by the Russians and objected to the Russian presence in Sarikol, the Sarikolis did not believe the Russian claim that they would leave them alone and only involved themselves in the mail service. Many of the young Kashgari women were most attractive in appearance, and some of the little girls quite lovely, their plaits of long hair falling from under a jaunty little embroidered cap, their big dark eyes, flashing teeth and piquant olive faces reminding me of Italian or Spanish children. One most beautiful boy stands out in my memory. He was clad in a new shirt and trousers of flowered pink, his crimson velvet cap embroidered with gold, and as he smiled and salaamed to us I thought he looked like a fairy prince. The women wear their hair in two or five plaits much thickened and lengthened by the addition of yak's hair, but the children in several tiny plaits. The peasants are fairly well off, as the soil is rich, the abundant water-supply free, and the taxation comparatively light. It was always interesting to meet them taking their live stock into market. Flocks of sheep with tiny lambs, black and white, pattered along the dusty road; here a goat followed its master like a dog, trotting behind the diminutive ass which the farmer bestrode; or boys, clad in the whity-brown native cloth, shouted incessantly at donkeys almost invisible under enormous loads of forage, or carried fowls and ducks in bunches head downwards, a sight that always made me long to come to the rescue of the luckless birds. It was pleasant to see the women riding alone on horseback, managing their mounts to perfection. They formed a sharp contrast to their Persian sisters, who either sit behind their husbands or have their steeds led by the bridle; and instead of keeping silence in public, as is the rule for the shrouded women of Iran, these farmers' wives chaffered and haggled with the men in the bazar outside the city, transacting business with their veils thrown back. Certainly the mullas do their best to keep the fair sex in their place, and are in the habit of beating those who show their faces in the Great Bazar. But I was told that poetic justice had lately been meted out to one of these upholders of the law of Islam, for by mistake he chastised a Kashgari woman married to a Chinaman, whereupon the irate husband set upon him with a big stick and castigated him soundly. That a Muslim should take in marriage one of alien faith is not objected to; it is rather deemed a meritorious act thus to bring an unbeliever to the true religion. The Muslim woman, on the other hand, must not be given in marriage to a non-Muslim; such a union is regarded as the most heinous of sins. In this matter, however, compromises are sometimes made with heaven: the marriage of a Turki princess with the emperor Ch'ien-lung has already been referred to; and, when the present writer passed through Minjol (a day's journey west of Kashgar) in 1902, a Chinese with a Turki wife (? concubine) was presented to him. FIRST EAST TURKESTAN REPUBLIC Kashgar was the scene of continual battles from 1933 to 1934. Ma Shaowu, a Chinese Muslim, was the Tao-yin of Kashgar, and he fought against Uyghur rebels. He was joined by another Chinese Muslim general, Ma Zhancang. BATTLE OF KASHGAR (1933) Uighur and Kirghiz forces, led by the Bughra brothers and Tawfiq Bay, attempted to take the New City of Kashgar from Chinese Muslim troops under General Ma Zhancang. They were defeated. Tawfiq Bey, a Syrian Arab traveler, who held the title Sayyid (descendent of prophet Muhammed) and arrived at Kashgar on August 26, 1933, was shot in the stomach by the Chinese Muslim troops in September. Previously Ma Zhancang arranged to have the Uighur leader Timur Beg killed and beheaded on August 9, 1933, displaying his head outside of Id Kah Mosque. Han chinese troops commanded by Brigadier Yang were absorbed into Ma Zhancang's army. A number of Han chinese officers were spotted wearing the green uniforms of Ma Zhancang's unit of the 36th division, presumably they had converted to Islam. BATTLE OF KASHGAR (1934) The 36th division General Ma Fuyuan led a Chinese Muslim army to storm Kashgar on February 6, 1934, attacking the Uighur and Kirghiz rebels of the First East Turkestan Republic. He freed another 36th division general, Ma Zhancang, who was trapped with his Chinese Muslim and Han Chinese troops in Kashgar New City by the Uighurs and Kirghiz since May 22, 1933. In January, 1934, Ma Zhancang's Chinese Muslim troops repulsed six Uighur attacks, launched by Khoja Niyaz, who arrived at the city on January 13, 1934, inflicting massive casualties on the Uighur forces. From 2,000 to 8,000 Uighur civilians in Kashgar Old City were massacred by Tungans in February, 1934, in revenge for the Kizil massacre, after retreating of Uighur forces from the city to Yengi Hisar. The Chinese Muslim and 36th division Chief General Ma Zhongying, who arrived at Kashgar on April 7, 1934, gave a speech at Id Kah Mosque in April, reminding the Uighurs to be loyal to the Republic of China government at Nanjing. Several British citizens at the British consulate were killed or wounded by the 36th division on March 16, 1934. PEOPLE´S REPUBLIC OF CHINA Kashgar was incorporated into the People's Republic of China in 1949. During the Cultural Revolution, one of the largest statues of Mao in China was built in Kashgar, near People's Square. In 1986, the Chinese government designated Kashgar a "city of historical and cultural significance". Kashgar and surrounding regions have been the site of Uyghur unrest since the 1990s. In 2008, two Uyghur men carried out a vehicular, IED and knife attack against police officers. In 2009, development of Kashgar's old town accelerated after the revelations of the deadly role of faulty architecture during the 2008 Sichuan earthquake. Many of the old houses in the old town were built without regulation, and as a result, officials found them to be overcrowded and non-compliant with fire and earthquake codes. When the plan started, 42% of the city's residents lived in the old town. With compensation, residents of faulty buildings are being counseled to move to newer, safer buildings that will replace the historic structures in the $448 million plan, including high-rise apartments, plazas, and reproductions of ancient Islamic architecture. The European Parliament issued a resolution in 2011 calling for "culture-sensitive methods of renovation." The International Scientific Committee on Earthen Architectural Heritage (ISCEAH) has expressed concern over the demolition and reconstruction of historic buildings. ISCEAH has, additionally, urged the implementation of techniques utilized elsewhere in the world to address earthquake vulnerability. Following the July 2009 Urumqi riots, the government focused on local economic development in an attempt to ameliorate ethnic tensions in the greater Xinjiang region. Kashgar was made into a Special Economic Zone in 2010, the first such zone in China's far west. In 2011, a spate of violence over two days killed dozens of people. By May 2012 two-thirds of the old city had been demolished, fulfilling "political as well as economic goals." In July 2014 the Imam of the Id Kah Mosque, Juma Tayir, was assassinated in Kashgar. CLIMATE Kashgar features a desert climate (Köppen BWk) with hot summers and cold winters, with large temperature differences between those two seasons: The monthly 24-hour average temperature ranges from −5.3 °C in January to 25.6 °C in July, while the annual mean is 11.84 °C. Spring is long and arrives quickly, while fall is somewhat brief in comparison. Kashgar is one of the driest cities on the planet, averaging only 64 millimetres of precipitation per year. The city’s wettest month, July, only sees on average 9.1 millimetres of rain. Because of the extremely arid conditions, snowfall is rare, despite the cold winters. Records have been as low as −24.4 °C in January and up to 40.1 °C in July. The frost-free period averages 215 days. With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 50% in March to 70% in September, the city receives 2,726 hours of bright sunshine annually. DEMOGRAPHICS Kashgar is predominately peopled by Muslim Uyghurs. Compared to Ürümqi, Xinjiang's capital and largest city, Kashgar is less industrial and has significantly fewer Han Chinese residents. ECONOMICS AND SOCIETY The city has a very important Sunday market. Thousands of farmers from the surrounding fertile lands come into the city to sell a wide variety of fruit and vegetables. Kashgar’s livestock market is also very lively. Silk and carpets made in Hotan are sold at bazaars, as well as local crafts, such as copper teapots and wooden jewellery boxes. In order to boost the economy in Kashgar region, the government classified the area as the sixth Special Economic Zone of China in May 2010. Mahmud al-Kashgari (Turkish: Kâşgarlı Mahmud) (Mahmut from Kashgar) wrote the first Turkic–Arabic Exemplary Dictionary called Divan-ı Lugat-it Türk[citation needed] The movie The Kite Runner was filmed in Kashgar. Kashgar and the surrounding countryside stood in for Kabul and Afghanistan, since filming in Afghanistan was not possible due to safety and security reasons. SIGHTS Kashgar's Old City has been called "the best-preserved example of a traditional Islamic city to be found anywhere in Central Asia". It is estimated to attract more than one million tourists annually. - Id Kah Mosque, the largest mosque in China, is located in the heart of the city. - People's Park, the main public park in central Kashgar. - An 18 m high statue of Mao Zedong in Kashgar is one of the few large-scale statues of Mao remaining in China. - The tomb of Afaq Khoja in Kashgar is considered the holiest Muslim site in Xinjiang. Built in the 17th century, the tiled mausoleum 5 km northeast of the city centre also contains the tombs of five generations of his family. Abakh was a powerful ruler, controlling Khotan, Yarkand, Korla, Kucha and Aksu as well as Kashgar. Among some Uyghur Muslims, he was considered a great Saint (Aulia). - Sunday Market in Kashgar is renowned as the biggest market in central Asia; a pivotal trading point along the Silk Road where goods have been traded for more than 2,000 years. The market is open every day but Sunday is the largest. TRANSPORTATION AIR Kashgar Airport serves mainly domestic flights, the majority of them from Urumqi. The only scheduled international flights are passenger and cargo services with Pakistan's capital Islamabad. RAIL Kashgar has the westernmost railway station in China. It is connected to the rest of China's rail network via the Southern Xinjiang Railway, which was built in December 1999. Kashgar–Hotan Railway opened for passenger traffic in June 2011, and connected Kashgar with cities in the southern Tarim Basin including Shache (Yarkand), Yecheng (Kargilik) and Hotan. Travel time to Urumqi from Kashgar is approximately 25 hours, while travel time to Hotan is approximately ten hours. The investigation work of a further extension of the railway line to Pakistan has begun. In November 2009, Pakistan and China agreed to set up a joint venture to do a feasibility study of the proposed rail link via the Khunjerab Pass. Proposals for a rail connection to Osh in Kyrgyzstan have also been discussed at various levels since at least 1996. In 2012, a standard gauge railway from Kashgar via Tajikistan and Afghanistan to Iran and beyond has been proposed. ROAD The Karakorum highway (KKH) links Islamabad, Pakistan with Kashgar over the Khunjerab Pass. The China–Pakistan Economic Corridor is a multibillion-dollar project was that will upgrade transport links between China and Pakistan, including the upgrades to the Karakorum highway. Bus routes exist for passenger travel south into Pakistan. Kyrgyzstan is also accessible from Kashgar, via the Torugart Pass and Irkeshtam Pass; as of summer 2007, daily bus service connects Kashgar with Bishkek’s Western Bus Terminal. Kashgar is also located on China National Highways G314 (which runs to Khunjerab Pass on the Sino−Pakistani border, and, in the opposite direction, towards Ürümqi), and G315, which runs to Xining, Qinghai from Kashgar. WIKIPEDIA

Kashgar is an oasis city with an approximate population of 350,000. It is the westernmost city in China, located near the border with Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. Kashgar has a rich history of over 2,000 years and served as a trading post and strategically important city on the Silk Road between China, the Middle East, and Europe. Kashgar is part of the China–Pakistan Economic Corridor. Located historically at the convergence point of widely varying cultures and empires, Kashgar has been under the rule of the Chinese, Turkic, Mongol, and Tibetan empires. The city has also been the site of an extraordinary number of battles between various groups of people on the steppes. Now administered as a county-level unit of the People's Republic of China, Kashgar is the administrative centre of its eponymous prefecture in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region which has an area of 162,000 square kilometres and a population of approximately 3.5 million. The city's urban area covers 15 km2, though its administrative area extends over 555 km2. NAME The modern Chinese name is 喀什 (Kāshí), a shortened form of the longer and less-frequently used (simplified Chinese: 喀什噶尔; traditional Chinese: 喀什噶爾; pinyin: Kāshígé’ěr; Uyghur: قەشقەر‎). Ptolemy (AD 90-168), in his Geography, Chapter 15.3A, refers to Kashgar as “Kasi”. Its western and probably indigenous name is the Kāš ("rock"), to which the East Iranian -γar ("mountain"); cf. Pashto and Middle Persian gar/ġar, from Old Persian/Pahlavi girīwa ("hill; ridge (of a mountain)") was attached. Alternative historical Romanizations for "Kashgar" include Cascar and Cashgar. Non-native names for the city, such as the old Chinese name Shule 疏勒 and Tibetan Śu-lig may have originated as an attempts to transcribe the Sanskrit name for Kashgar, Śrīkrīrāti ("fortunate hospitality") Variant transcriptions of the official Uyghur: يېڭىشەھەر‎ include: K̂äxk̂är or Kaxgar, as well as Jangi-schahr, Kashgar Yangi Shahr, K’o-shih-ka-erh, K’o-shih-ka-erh-hsin-ch’eng, Ko-shih-ka-erh-hui-ch’eng, K’o-shih-ko-erh-hsin-ch’eng, New Kashgar, Sheleh, Shuleh, Shulen, Shu-lo, Su-lo, Su-lo-chen, Su-lo-hsien, Yangi-shaar, Yangi-shahr, Yangishar, Yéngisheher, Yengixəh̨ər and Еңишәһәр. HISTORY HAN DYNASTY The earliest mention of Kashgar occurs when a Chinese Han dynasty envoy traveled the Northern Silk Road to explore lands to the west. Another early mention of Kashgar is during the Former Han (also known as the Western Han dynasty), when in 76 BC the Chinese conquered the Xiongnu, Yutian (Khotan), Sulei (Kashgar), and a group of states in the Tarim basin almost up to the foot of the Tian Shan range. Ptolemy speaks of Scythia beyond the Imaus, which is in a “Kasia Regio”, probably exhibiting the name from which Kashgar and Kashgaria (often applied to the district) are formed. The country’s people practised Zoroastrianism and Buddhism before the coming of Islam. In the Book of Han, which covers the period between 125 BC and 23 AD, it is recorded that there were 1,510 households, 18,647 people and 2,000 persons able to bear arms. By the time covered by the Book of the Later Han (roughly 25 to 170 AD), it had grown to 21,000 households and had 3,000 men able to bear arms. The Book of the Later Han provides a wealth of detail on developments in the region: "In the period of Emperor Wu [140-87 BC], the Western Regions1 were under the control of the Interior [China]. They numbered thirty-six kingdoms. The Imperial Government established a Colonel [in charge of] Envoys there to direct and protect these countries. Emperor Xuan [73-49 BC] changed this title [in 59 BC] to Protector-General. Emperor Yuan [40-33 BC] installed two Wuji Colonels to take charge of the agricultural garrisons on the frontiers of the king of Nearer Jushi [Turpan]. During the time of Emperor Ai [6 BC-AD 1] and Emperor Ping [AD 1-5], the principalities of the Western Regions split up and formed fifty-five kingdoms. Wang Mang, after he usurped the Throne [in AD 9], demoted and changed their kings and marquises. Following this, the Western Regions became resentful, and rebelled. They, therefore, broke off all relations with the Interior [China] and, all together, submitted to the Xiongnu again. The Xiongnu collected oppressively heavy taxes and the kingdoms were not able to support their demands. In the middle of the Jianwu period [AD 25-56], they each [Shanshan and Yarkand in 38, and 18 kingdoms in 45], sent envoys to ask if they could submit to the Interior [China], and to express their desire for a Protector-General. Emperor Guangwu, decided that because the Empire was not yet settled [after a long period of civil war], he had no time for outside affairs, and [therefore] finally refused his consent [in AD 45]. In the meantime, the Xiongnu became weaker. The king of Suoju [Yarkand], named Xian, wiped out several kingdoms. After Xian’s death [c. AD 62], they began to attack and fight each other. Xiao Yuan [Tura], Jingjue [Cadota], Ronglu [Niya], and Qiemo [Cherchen] were annexed by Shanshan [the Lop Nur region]. Qule [south of Keriya] and Pishan [modern Pishan or Guma] were conquered and fully occupied by Yutian [Khotan]. Yuli [Fukang], Danhuan, Guhu [Dawan Cheng], and Wutanzili were destroyed by Jushi [Turpan and Jimasa]. Later these kingdoms were re-established. During the Yongping period [AD 58-75], the Northern Xiongnu forced several countries to help them plunder the commanderies and districts of Hexi. The gates of the towns stayed shut in broad daylight." And, more particularly in reference to Kashgar itself, is the following record: "In the sixteenth Yongping year of Emperor Ming 73, Jian, the king of Qiuci (Kucha), attacked and killed Cheng, the king of Shule (Kashgar). Then he appointed the Qiuci (Kucha) Marquis of the Left, Douti, King of Shule (Kashgar). ‹See TfD› In winter 73, the Han sent the Major Ban Chao who captured and bound Douti. He appointed Zhong, the son of the elder brother of Cheng, to be king of Shule (Kashgar). Zhong later rebelled. (Ban) Chao attacked and beheaded him." THE KUSHANS The Book of the Later Han also gives the only extant historical record of Yuezhi or Kushan involvement in the Kashgar oasis: "During the Yuanchu period (114-120) in the reign of Emperor, the king of Shule (Kashgar), exiled his maternal uncle Chenpan to the Yuezhi (Kushans) for some offence. The king of the Yuezhi became very fond of him. Later, Anguo died without leaving a son. His mother directed the government of the kingdom. She agreed with the people of the country to put Yifu (lit. “posthumous child”), who was the son of a full younger brother of Chenpan on the throne as king of Shule (Kashgar). Chenpan heard of this and appealed to the Yuezhi (Kushan) king, saying: "Anguo had no son. His relative (Yifu) is weak. If one wants to put on the throne a member of (Anguo’s) mother’s family, I am Yifu’s paternal uncle, it is I who should be king." The Yuezhi (Kushans) then sent soldiers to escort him back to Shule (Kashgar). The people had previously respected and been fond of Chenpan. Besides, they dreaded the Yuezhi (Kushans). They immediately took the seal and ribbon from Yifu and went to Chenpan, and made him king. Yifu was given the title of Marquis of the town of Pangao [90 li, or 37 km, from Shule]. ‹See TfD› Then Suoju (Yarkand) continued to resist Yutian (Khotan), and put themselves under Shule (Kashgar). Thus Shule (Kashgar), became powerful and a rival to Qiuci (Kucha) and Yutian (Khotan)." However, it was not very long before the Chinese began to reassert their authority in the region: “In the second Yongjian year (127), during Emperor Shun’s reign, Chenpan sent an envoy to respectfully present offerings. The Emperor bestowed on Chenpan the title of Great Commandant-in-Chief for the Han. Chenxun, who was the son of his elder brother, was appointed Temporary Major of the Kingdom. ‹See TfD› In the fifth year (130), Chenpan sent his son to serve the Emperor and, along with envoys from Dayuan (Ferghana) and Suoju (Yarkand), brought tribute and offerings.” From an earlier part of the same text comes the following addition: “In the first Yangjia year (132), Xu You sent the king of Shule (Kashgar), Chenpan, who with 20,000 men, attacked and defeated Yutian (Khotan). He beheaded several hundred people, and released his soldiers to plunder freely. He replaced the king [of Jumi] by installing Chengguo from the family of [the previous king] Xing, and then he returned.”[38] Then the first passage continues: “In the second Yangjia year (133), Chenpan again made offerings (including) a lion and zebu cattle. ‹See TfD› Then, during Emperor Ling’s reign, in the first Jianning year, the king of Shule (Kashgar) and Commandant-in-Chief for the Han (i.e. presumably Chenpan), was shot while hunting by the youngest of his paternal uncles, Hede. Hede named himself king. ‹See TfD› In the third year (170), Meng Tuo, the Inspector of Liangzhou, sent the Provincial Officer Ren She, commanding five hundred soldiers from Dunhuang, with the Wuji Major Cao Kuan, and Chief Clerk of the Western Regions, Zhang Yan, brought troops from Yanqi (Karashahr), Qiuci (Kucha), and the Nearer and Further States of Jushi (Turpan and Jimasa), altogether numbering more than 30,000, to punish Shule (Kashgar). They attacked the town of Zhenzhong [Arach − near Maralbashi] but, having stayed for more than forty days without being able to subdue it, they withdrew. Following this, the kings of Shule (Kashgar) killed one another repeatedly while the Imperial Government was unable to prevent it.” THREE KINGDOMS TO THE SUI These centuries are marked by a general silence in sources on Kashgar and the Tarim Basin. The Weilüe, composed in the second third of the 3rd century, mentions a number of states as dependencies of Kashgar: the kingdom of Zhenzhong (Arach?), the kingdom of Suoju (Yarkand), the kingdom of Jieshi, the kingdom of Qusha, the kingdom of Xiye (Khargalik), the kingdom of Yinai (Tashkurghan), the kingdom of Manli (modern Karasul), the kingdom of Yire (Mazar − also known as Tágh Nák and Tokanak), the kingdom of Yuling, the kingdom of Juandu (‘Tax Control’ − near modern Irkeshtam), the kingdom of Xiuxiu (‘Excellent Rest Stop’ − near Karakavak), and the kingdom of Qin. However, much of the information on the Western Regions contained in the Weilüe seems to have ended roughly about (170), near the end of Han power. So, we can’t be sure that this is a reference to the state of affairs during the Cao Wei (220-265), or whether it refers to the situation before the civil war during the Later Han when China lost touch with most foreign countries and came to be divided into three separate kingdoms. Chapter 30 of the Records of the Three Kingdoms says that after the beginning of the Wei Dynasty (220) the states of the Western Regions did not arrive as before, except for the larger ones such as Kucha, Khotan, Kangju, Wusun, Kashgar, Yuezhi, Shanshan and Turpan, who are said to have come to present tribute every year, as in Han times. In 270, four states from the Western Regions were said to have presented tribute: Karashahr, Turpan, Shanshan, and Kucha. Some wooden documents from Niya seem to indicate that contacts were also maintained with Kashgar and Khotan around this time. In 422, according to the Songshu, ch. 98, the king of Shanshan, Bilong, came to the court and "the thirty-six states in the Western Regions" all swore their allegiance and presented tribute. It must be assumed that these 36 states included Kashgar. The "Songji" of the Zizhi Tongjian records that in the 5th month of 435, nine states: Kucha, Kashgar, Wusun, Yueban, Tashkurghan, Shanshan, Karashahr, Turpan and Sute all came to the Wei court. In 439, according to the Weishu, ch. 4A, Shanshan, Kashgar and Karashahr sent envoys to present tribute. According to the Weishu, ch. 102, Chapter on the Western Regions, the kingdoms of Kucha, Kashgar, Wusun, Yueban, Tashkurghan, Shanshan, Karashahr, Turpan and Sute all began sending envoys to present tribute in the Taiyuan reign period (435-440). In 453 Kashgar sent envoys to present tribute (Weishu, ch. 5), and again in 455. An embassy sent during the reign of Wencheng Di (452-466) from the king of Kashgar presented a supposed sacred relic of the Buddha; a dress which was incombustible. In 507 Kashgar, is said to have sent envoys in both the 9th and 10th months (Weishu, ch. 8). In 512, Kashgar sent envoys in the 1st and 5th months. (Weishu, ch. 8). Early in the 6th century Kashgar is included among the many territories controlled by the Yeda or Hephthalite Huns, but their empire collapsed at the onslaught of the Western Turks between 563 and 567 who then probably gained control over Kashgar and most of the states in the Tarim Basin. TANG DYNASTY The founding of the Tang dynasty in 618 saw the beginning of a prolonged struggle between China and the Western Turks for control of the Tarim Basin. In 635, the Tang Annals reported an emissary from the king of Kashgar to the Tang capital. In 639 there was a second emissary bringing products of Kashgar as a token of submission to the Tang state. Buddhist scholar Xuanzang passed through Kashgar (which he referred to as Ka-sha) in 644 on his return journey from India to China. The Buddhist religion, then beginning to decay in India, was active in Kashgar. Xuanzang recorded that they flattened their babies heads, tattooed their bodies and had green eyes. He reported that Kashgar had abundant crops, fruits and flowers, wove fine woolen stuffs and rugs. Their writing system had been adapted from Indian script but their language was different from that of other countries. The inhabitants were sincere Buddhist adherents and there were some hundreds of monasteries with more than 10,000 followers, all members of the Sarvastivadin School. At around the same era, Nestorian Christians were establishing bishoprics at Herat, Merv and Samarkand, whence they subsequently proceeded to Kashgar, and finally to China proper itself. In 646, the Turkic Kagan asked for the hand of a Tang Chinese princess, and in return the Emperor promised Kucha, Khotan, Kashgar, Karashahr and Sarikol as a marriage gift, but this did not happen as planned. In a series of campaigns between 652 and 658, with the help of the Uyghurs, the Chinese finally defeated the Western Turk tribes and took control of all their domains, including the Tarim Basin kingdoms. Karakhoja was annexed in 640, Karashahr during campaigns in 644 and 648, and Kucha fell in 648. In 662 a rebellion broke out in the Western Regions and a Chinese army sent to control it was defeated by the Tibetans south of Kashgar. After another defeat of the Tang Chinese forces in 670, the Tibetans gained control of the whole region and completely subjugated Kashgar in 676-8 and retained possession of it until 692, when the Tang dynasty regained control of all their former territories, and retained it for the next fifty years. In 722 Kashgar sent 4,000 troops to assist the Chinese to force the "Tibetans out of "Little Bolu" or Gilgit. In 728, the king of Kashgar was awarded a brevet by the Chinese emperor. In 739, the Tangshu relates that the governor of the Chinese garrison in Kashgar, with the help of Ferghana, was interfering in the affairs of the Turgesh tribes as far as Talas. In 751 the Chinese were defeated by an Arab army in the Battle of Talas. The An Lushan Rebellion led to the decline of Tang influence in Central Asia due to the fact that the Tang dynasty was forced to withdraw its troops from the region to fight An Lushan. The Tibetans cut all communication between China and the West in 766. Soon after the Chinese pilgrim monk Wukong passed through Kashgar in 753. He again reached Kashgar on his return trip from India in 786 and mentions a Chinese deputy governor as well as the local king. BATTLES WITH ARAB CALIPHATE In 711, the Arabs invaded Kashgar, but did not hold the city for any length of time. Kashgar and Turkestan lent assistance to the reigning queen of Bukhara, to enable her to repel the Arabs. Although the Muslim religion from the very commencement sustained checks, it nevertheless made its weight felt upon the independent states of Turkestan to the north and east, and thus acquired a steadily growing influence. It was not, however, till the 10th century that Islam was established at Kashgar, under the Kara-Khanid Khanate. THE TURKIC RULE According to the 10th-century text, Hudud al-'alam, "the chiefs of Kashghar in the days of old were from the Qarluq, or from the Yaghma." The Karluks, Yaghmas and other tribes such as the Chigils formed the Karakhanids. The Karakhanid Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan converted to Islam in the 10th century and captured Kashgar. Kashgar was the capital of the Karakhanid state for a time but later the capital was moved to Balasaghun. During the latter part of the 10th century, the Muslim Karakhanids began a struggle against the Buddhist Kingdom of Khotan, and the Khotanese defeated the Karakhanids and captured Kashgar in 970. Chinese sources recorded the king of Khotan offering to send them a dancing elephant captured from Kashgar. Later in 1006, the Karakhanids of Kashgar under Yusuf Kadr Khan conquered Khotan. The Karakhanid Khanate however was beset with internal strife, and the khanate split into two, the Eastern and Western Karakhanid Khanates, with Kashgar falling within the domain of the Eastern Karakhanid state. In 1089, the Western Karakhanids fell under the control of the Seljuks, but the Eastern Karakhanids was for the most part independent. Both the Karakhanid states were defeated in the 12th century by the Kara-Khitans who captured Balasaghun, however Karakhanid rule continued in Kashgar under the suzerainty of the Kara-Khitans. The Kara-Khitan rulers followed a policy of religious tolerance, Islamic religious life continued uninterrupted and Kashgar was also a Nestorian metropolitan see. The last Karakhanid of Kashgar was killed in a revolt in 1211 by the city's notables. Kuchlug, a usurper of the throne of the Kara-Khitans, then attacked Kashgar which finally surrendered in 1214. THE MONGOLS The Kara-Khitai in their turn were swept away in 1219 by Genghis Khan. After his death, Kashgar came under the rule of the Chagatai Khans. Marco Polo visited the city, which he calls Cascar, about 1273-4 and recorded the presence of numerous Nestorian Christians, who had their own churches. Later In the 14th century, a Chagataid khan Tughluq Timur converted to Islam, and Islamic tradition began to reassert its ascendancy. In 1389−1390 Tamerlane ravaged Kashgar, Andijan and the intervening country. Kashgar endured a troubled time, and in 1514, on the invasion of the Khan Sultan Said, was destroyed by Mirza Ababakar, who with the aid of ten thousand men built a new fort with massive defences higher up on the banks of the Tuman river. The dynasty of the Chagatai Khans collapsed in 1572 with the division of the country among rival factions; soon after, two powerful Khoja factions, the White and Black Mountaineers (Ak Taghliq or Afaqi, and Kara Taghliq or Ishaqi), arose whose differences and war-making gestures, with the intermittent episode of the Oirats of Dzungaria, make up much of recorded history in Kashgar until 1759. The Dzungar Khanate conquered Kashgar and set up the Khoja as their puppet rulers. QING CONQUEST The Qing dynasty defeated the Dzungar Khanate during the Ten Great Campaigns and took control of Kashgar in 1759. The conquerors consolidated their authority by settling other ethnics emigrants in the vicinity of a Manchu garrison. Rumours flew around Central Asia that the Qing planned to launch expeditions towards Transoxiana and Samarkand, the chiefs of which sought assistance from the Afghan king Ahmed Shah Abdali. The alleged expedition never happened so Ahmad Shah withdrew his forces from Kokand. He also dispatched an ambassador to Beijing to discuss the situation of the Afaqi Khojas, but the representative was not well received, and Ahmed Shah was too busy fighting off the Sikhs to attempt to enforce his demands through arms. The Qing continued to hold Kashgar with occasional interruptions during the Afaqi Khoja revolts. One of the most serious of these occurred in 1827, when the city was taken by Jahanghir Khoja; Chang-lung, however, the Qing general of Ili, regained possession of Kashgar and the other rebellious cities in 1828. The Kokand Khanate raided Kashgar several times. A revolt in 1829 under Mahommed Ali Khan and Yusuf, brother of Jahanghir resulted in the concession of several important trade privileges to the Muslims of the district of Altishahr (the "six cities"), as it was then called. The area enjoyed relative calm until 1846 under the rule of Zahir-ud-din, the local Uyghur governor, but in that year a new Khoja revolt under Kath Tora led to his accession as the authoritarian ruler of the city. However, his reign was brief—at the end of seventy-five days, on the approach of the Chinese, he fled back to Khokand amid the jeers of the inhabitants. The last of the Khoja revolts (1857) was of about equal duration, and took place under Wali-Khan, who murdered the well-known traveler Adolf Schlagintweit. 1862 CHINESE HUI REVOLT The great Dungan revolt (1862–1877) involved insurrection among various Muslim ethnic groups. It broke out in 1862 in Gansu then spread rapidly to Dzungaria and through the line of towns in the Tarim Basin. Dungan troops based in Yarkand rose and in August 1864 massacred some seven thousand Chinese and their Manchu commander. The inhabitants of Kashgar, rising in their turn against their masters, invoked the aid of Sadik Beg, a Kyrgyz chief, who was reinforced by Buzurg Khan, the heir of Jahanghir Khoja, and his general Yakub Beg. The latter men were dispatched at Sadik’s request by the ruler of Khokand to raise what troops they could to aid his Muslim friends in Kashgar. Sadik Beg soon repented of having asked for a Khoja, and eventually marched against Kashgar, which by this time had succumbed to Buzurg Khan and Yakub Beg, but was defeated and driven back to Khokand. Buzurg Khan delivered himself up to indolence and debauchery, but Yakub Beg, with singular energy and perseverance, made himself master of Yangi Shahr, Yangi-Hissar, Yarkand and other towns, and eventually became sole master of the country, Buzurg Khan proving himself totally unfit for the post of ruler. With the overthrow of Chinese rule in 1865 by Yakub Beg (1820–1877), the manufacturing industries of Kashgar are supposed to have declined. Yaqub Beg entered into relations and signed treaties with the Russian Empire and the British Empire, but when he tried to get their support against China, he failed. Kashgar and the other cities of the Tarim Basin remained under Yakub Beg’s rule until May 1877, when he died at Korla. Thereafter Kashgaria was reconquered by the forces of the Qing general Zuo Zongtang during the Qing reconquest of Xinjiang. QING RULE There were eras in Xinjiang's history where intermarriage was common, "laxity" which set upon Uyghur women led them to marry Chinese men and not wear the veil in the period after Yaqub Beg's rule ended, it is also believed by Uyghurs that some Uyghurs have Han Chinese ancestry from historical intermarriage, such as those living in Turpan. Even though Muslim women are forbidden to marry non-Muslims in Islamic law, from 1880-1949 it was frequently violated in Xinjiang since Chinese men married Muslim Turki (Uyghur) women, a reason suggested by foriengers that it was due to the women being poor, while the Turki women who married Chinese were labelled as whores by the Turki community, these marriages were illegitimate according to Islamic law but the women obtained benefits from marrying Chinese men since the Chinese defended them from Islamic authorities so the women were not subjected to the tax on prostitution and were able to save their income for themselves. Chinese men gave their Turki wives privileges which Turki men's wives did not have, since the wives of Chinese did not have to wear a veil and a Chinese man in Kashgar once beat a mullah who tried to force his Turki Kashgari wife to veil. The Turki women also benefited in that they were not subjected to any legal binding to their Chinese husbands so they could make their Chinese husbands provide them with as much their money as she wanted for her relatives and herself since otherwise the women could just leave, and the property of Chinese men was left to their Turki wives after they died. Turki women considered Turki men to be inferior husbands to Chinese and Hindus. Because they were viewed as "impure", Islamic cemeteries banned the Turki wives of Chinese men from being buried within them, the Turki women got around this problem by giving shrines donations and buying a grave in other towns. Besides Chinese men, other men such as Hindus, Armenians, Jews, Russians, and Badakhshanis intermarried with local Turki women. The local society accepted the Turki women and Chinese men's mixed offspring as their own people despite the marriages being in violation of Islamic law. Turki women also conducted temporary marriages with Chinese men such as Chinese soldiers temporarily stationed around them as soldiers for tours of duty, after which the Chinese men returned to their own cities, with the Chinese men selling their mixed daughters with the Turki women to his comrades, taking their sons with them if they could afford it but leaving them if they couldn't, and selling their temporary Turki wife to a comrade or leaving her behind. An anti-Russian uproar broke out when Russian customs officials, 3 Cossacks and a Russian courier invited local Turki (Uyghur) prostitutes to a party in January 1902 in Kashgar, this caused a massive brawl by the inflamed local Turki Muslim populace against the Russians on the pretense of protecting Muslim women because there was anti-Russian sentiment being built up, even though morality was not strict in Kashgar, the local Turki Muslims violently clashed with the Russians before they were dispersed by guards, the Chinese sought to end to tensions to prevent the Russians from building up a pretext to invade. After the riot, the Russians sent troops to Sarikol in Tashkurghan and demanded that the Sarikol postal services be placed under Russian supervision, the locals of Sarikol believed that the Russians would seize the entire district from the Chinese and send more soldiers even after the Russians tried to negotiate with the Begs of Sarikol and sway them to their side, they failed since the Sarikoli officials and authorities demanded in a petition to the Amban of Yarkand that they be evacuated to Yarkand to avoid being harassed by the Russians and objected to the Russian presence in Sarikol, the Sarikolis did not believe the Russian claim that they would leave them alone and only involved themselves in the mail service. Many of the young Kashgari women were most attractive in appearance, and some of the little girls quite lovely, their plaits of long hair falling from under a jaunty little embroidered cap, their big dark eyes, flashing teeth and piquant olive faces reminding me of Italian or Spanish children. One most beautiful boy stands out in my memory. He was clad in a new shirt and trousers of flowered pink, his crimson velvet cap embroidered with gold, and as he smiled and salaamed to us I thought he looked like a fairy prince. The women wear their hair in two or five plaits much thickened and lengthened by the addition of yak's hair, but the children in several tiny plaits. The peasants are fairly well off, as the soil is rich, the abundant water-supply free, and the taxation comparatively light. It was always interesting to meet them taking their live stock into market. Flocks of sheep with tiny lambs, black and white, pattered along the dusty road; here a goat followed its master like a dog, trotting behind the diminutive ass which the farmer bestrode; or boys, clad in the whity-brown native cloth, shouted incessantly at donkeys almost invisible under enormous loads of forage, or carried fowls and ducks in bunches head downwards, a sight that always made me long to come to the rescue of the luckless birds. It was pleasant to see the women riding alone on horseback, managing their mounts to perfection. They formed a sharp contrast to their Persian sisters, who either sit behind their husbands or have their steeds led by the bridle; and instead of keeping silence in public, as is the rule for the shrouded women of Iran, these farmers' wives chaffered and haggled with the men in the bazar outside the city, transacting business with their veils thrown back. Certainly the mullas do their best to keep the fair sex in their place, and are in the habit of beating those who show their faces in the Great Bazar. But I was told that poetic justice had lately been meted out to one of these upholders of the law of Islam, for by mistake he chastised a Kashgari woman married to a Chinaman, whereupon the irate husband set upon him with a big stick and castigated him soundly. That a Muslim should take in marriage one of alien faith is not objected to; it is rather deemed a meritorious act thus to bring an unbeliever to the true religion. The Muslim woman, on the other hand, must not be given in marriage to a non-Muslim; such a union is regarded as the most heinous of sins. In this matter, however, compromises are sometimes made with heaven: the marriage of a Turki princess with the emperor Ch'ien-lung has already been referred to; and, when the present writer passed through Minjol (a day's journey west of Kashgar) in 1902, a Chinese with a Turki wife (? concubine) was presented to him. FIRST EAST TURKESTAN REPUBLIC Kashgar was the scene of continual battles from 1933 to 1934. Ma Shaowu, a Chinese Muslim, was the Tao-yin of Kashgar, and he fought against Uyghur rebels. He was joined by another Chinese Muslim general, Ma Zhancang. BATTLE OF KASHGAR (1933) Uighur and Kirghiz forces, led by the Bughra brothers and Tawfiq Bay, attempted to take the New City of Kashgar from Chinese Muslim troops under General Ma Zhancang. They were defeated. Tawfiq Bey, a Syrian Arab traveler, who held the title Sayyid (descendent of prophet Muhammed) and arrived at Kashgar on August 26, 1933, was shot in the stomach by the Chinese Muslim troops in September. Previously Ma Zhancang arranged to have the Uighur leader Timur Beg killed and beheaded on August 9, 1933, displaying his head outside of Id Kah Mosque. Han chinese troops commanded by Brigadier Yang were absorbed into Ma Zhancang's army. A number of Han chinese officers were spotted wearing the green uniforms of Ma Zhancang's unit of the 36th division, presumably they had converted to Islam. BATTLE OF KASHGAR (1934) The 36th division General Ma Fuyuan led a Chinese Muslim army to storm Kashgar on February 6, 1934, attacking the Uighur and Kirghiz rebels of the First East Turkestan Republic. He freed another 36th division general, Ma Zhancang, who was trapped with his Chinese Muslim and Han Chinese troops in Kashgar New City by the Uighurs and Kirghiz since May 22, 1933. In January, 1934, Ma Zhancang's Chinese Muslim troops repulsed six Uighur attacks, launched by Khoja Niyaz, who arrived at the city on January 13, 1934, inflicting massive casualties on the Uighur forces. From 2,000 to 8,000 Uighur civilians in Kashgar Old City were massacred by Tungans in February, 1934, in revenge for the Kizil massacre, after retreating of Uighur forces from the city to Yengi Hisar. The Chinese Muslim and 36th division Chief General Ma Zhongying, who arrived at Kashgar on April 7, 1934, gave a speech at Id Kah Mosque in April, reminding the Uighurs to be loyal to the Republic of China government at Nanjing. Several British citizens at the British consulate were killed or wounded by the 36th division on March 16, 1934. PEOPLE´S REPUBLIC OF CHINA Kashgar was incorporated into the People's Republic of China in 1949. During the Cultural Revolution, one of the largest statues of Mao in China was built in Kashgar, near People's Square. In 1986, the Chinese government designated Kashgar a "city of historical and cultural significance". Kashgar and surrounding regions have been the site of Uyghur unrest since the 1990s. In 2008, two Uyghur men carried out a vehicular, IED and knife attack against police officers. In 2009, development of Kashgar's old town accelerated after the revelations of the deadly role of faulty architecture during the 2008 Sichuan earthquake. Many of the old houses in the old town were built without regulation, and as a result, officials found them to be overcrowded and non-compliant with fire and earthquake codes. When the plan started, 42% of the city's residents lived in the old town. With compensation, residents of faulty buildings are being counseled to move to newer, safer buildings that will replace the historic structures in the $448 million plan, including high-rise apartments, plazas, and reproductions of ancient Islamic architecture. The European Parliament issued a resolution in 2011 calling for "culture-sensitive methods of renovation." The International Scientific Committee on Earthen Architectural Heritage (ISCEAH) has expressed concern over the demolition and reconstruction of historic buildings. ISCEAH has, additionally, urged the implementation of techniques utilized elsewhere in the world to address earthquake vulnerability. Following the July 2009 Urumqi riots, the government focused on local economic development in an attempt to ameliorate ethnic tensions in the greater Xinjiang region. Kashgar was made into a Special Economic Zone in 2010, the first such zone in China's far west. In 2011, a spate of violence over two days killed dozens of people. By May 2012 two-thirds of the old city had been demolished, fulfilling "political as well as economic goals." In July 2014 the Imam of the Id Kah Mosque, Juma Tayir, was assassinated in Kashgar. CLIMATE Kashgar features a desert climate (Köppen BWk) with hot summers and cold winters, with large temperature differences between those two seasons: The monthly 24-hour average temperature ranges from −5.3 °C in January to 25.6 °C in July, while the annual mean is 11.84 °C. Spring is long and arrives quickly, while fall is somewhat brief in comparison. Kashgar is one of the driest cities on the planet, averaging only 64 millimetres of precipitation per year. The city’s wettest month, July, only sees on average 9.1 millimetres of rain. Because of the extremely arid conditions, snowfall is rare, despite the cold winters. Records have been as low as −24.4 °C in January and up to 40.1 °C in July. The frost-free period averages 215 days. With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 50% in March to 70% in September, the city receives 2,726 hours of bright sunshine annually. DEMOGRAPHICS Kashgar is predominately peopled by Muslim Uyghurs. Compared to Ürümqi, Xinjiang's capital and largest city, Kashgar is less industrial and has significantly fewer Han Chinese residents. ECONOMICS AND SOCIETY The city has a very important Sunday market. Thousands of farmers from the surrounding fertile lands come into the city to sell a wide variety of fruit and vegetables. Kashgar’s livestock market is also very lively. Silk and carpets made in Hotan are sold at bazaars, as well as local crafts, such as copper teapots and wooden jewellery boxes. In order to boost the economy in Kashgar region, the government classified the area as the sixth Special Economic Zone of China in May 2010. Mahmud al-Kashgari (Turkish: Kâşgarlı Mahmud) (Mahmut from Kashgar) wrote the first Turkic–Arabic Exemplary Dictionary called Divan-ı Lugat-it Türk[citation needed] The movie The Kite Runner was filmed in Kashgar. Kashgar and the surrounding countryside stood in for Kabul and Afghanistan, since filming in Afghanistan was not possible due to safety and security reasons. SIGHTS Kashgar's Old City has been called "the best-preserved example of a traditional Islamic city to be found anywhere in Central Asia". It is estimated to attract more than one million tourists annually. - Id Kah Mosque, the largest mosque in China, is located in the heart of the city. - People's Park, the main public park in central Kashgar. - An 18 m high statue of Mao Zedong in Kashgar is one of the few large-scale statues of Mao remaining in China. - The tomb of Afaq Khoja in Kashgar is considered the holiest Muslim site in Xinjiang. Built in the 17th century, the tiled mausoleum 5 km northeast of the city centre also contains the tombs of five generations of his family. Abakh was a powerful ruler, controlling Khotan, Yarkand, Korla, Kucha and Aksu as well as Kashgar. Among some Uyghur Muslims, he was considered a great Saint (Aulia). - Sunday Market in Kashgar is renowned as the biggest market in central Asia; a pivotal trading point along the Silk Road where goods have been traded for more than 2,000 years. The market is open every day but Sunday is the largest. TRANSPORTATION AIR Kashgar Airport serves mainly domestic flights, the majority of them from Urumqi. The only scheduled international flights are passenger and cargo services with Pakistan's capital Islamabad. RAIL Kashgar has the westernmost railway station in China. It is connected to the rest of China's rail network via the Southern Xinjiang Railway, which was built in December 1999. Kashgar–Hotan Railway opened for passenger traffic in June 2011, and connected Kashgar with cities in the southern Tarim Basin including Shache (Yarkand), Yecheng (Kargilik) and Hotan. Travel time to Urumqi from Kashgar is approximately 25 hours, while travel time to Hotan is approximately ten hours. The investigation work of a further extension of the railway line to Pakistan has begun. In November 2009, Pakistan and China agreed to set up a joint venture to do a feasibility study of the proposed rail link via the Khunjerab Pass. Proposals for a rail connection to Osh in Kyrgyzstan have also been discussed at various levels since at least 1996. In 2012, a standard gauge railway from Kashgar via Tajikistan and Afghanistan to Iran and beyond has been proposed. ROAD The Karakorum highway (KKH) links Islamabad, Pakistan with Kashgar over the Khunjerab Pass. The China–Pakistan Economic Corridor is a multibillion-dollar project was that will upgrade transport links between China and Pakistan, including the upgrades to the Karakorum highway. Bus routes exist for passenger travel south into Pakistan. Kyrgyzstan is also accessible from Kashgar, via the Torugart Pass and Irkeshtam Pass; as of summer 2007, daily bus service connects Kashgar with Bishkek’s Western Bus Terminal. Kashgar is also located on China National Highways G314 (which runs to Khunjerab Pass on the Sino−Pakistani border, and, in the opposite direction, towards Ürümqi), and G315, which runs to Xining, Qinghai from Kashgar. WIKIPEDIA

Kashgar is an oasis city with an approximate population of 350,000. It is the westernmost city in China, located near the border with Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. Kashgar has a rich history of over 2,000 years and served as a trading post and strategically important city on the Silk Road between China, the Middle East, and Europe. Kashgar is part of the China–Pakistan Economic Corridor. Located historically at the convergence point of widely varying cultures and empires, Kashgar has been under the rule of the Chinese, Turkic, Mongol, and Tibetan empires. The city has also been the site of an extraordinary number of battles between various groups of people on the steppes. Now administered as a county-level unit of the People's Republic of China, Kashgar is the administrative centre of its eponymous prefecture in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region which has an area of 162,000 square kilometres and a population of approximately 3.5 million. The city's urban area covers 15 km2, though its administrative area extends over 555 km2. NAME The modern Chinese name is 喀什 (Kāshí), a shortened form of the longer and less-frequently used (simplified Chinese: 喀什噶尔; traditional Chinese: 喀什噶爾; pinyin: Kāshígé’ěr; Uyghur: قەشقەر‎). Ptolemy (AD 90-168), in his Geography, Chapter 15.3A, refers to Kashgar as “Kasi”. Its western and probably indigenous name is the Kāš ("rock"), to which the East Iranian -γar ("mountain"); cf. Pashto and Middle Persian gar/ġar, from Old Persian/Pahlavi girīwa ("hill; ridge (of a mountain)") was attached. Alternative historical Romanizations for "Kashgar" include Cascar and Cashgar. Non-native names for the city, such as the old Chinese name Shule 疏勒 and Tibetan Śu-lig may have originated as an attempts to transcribe the Sanskrit name for Kashgar, Śrīkrīrāti ("fortunate hospitality") Variant transcriptions of the official Uyghur: يېڭىشەھەر‎ include: K̂äxk̂är or Kaxgar, as well as Jangi-schahr, Kashgar Yangi Shahr, K’o-shih-ka-erh, K’o-shih-ka-erh-hsin-ch’eng, Ko-shih-ka-erh-hui-ch’eng, K’o-shih-ko-erh-hsin-ch’eng, New Kashgar, Sheleh, Shuleh, Shulen, Shu-lo, Su-lo, Su-lo-chen, Su-lo-hsien, Yangi-shaar, Yangi-shahr, Yangishar, Yéngisheher, Yengixəh̨ər and Еңишәһәр. HISTORY HAN DYNASTY The earliest mention of Kashgar occurs when a Chinese Han dynasty envoy traveled the Northern Silk Road to explore lands to the west. Another early mention of Kashgar is during the Former Han (also known as the Western Han dynasty), when in 76 BC the Chinese conquered the Xiongnu, Yutian (Khotan), Sulei (Kashgar), and a group of states in the Tarim basin almost up to the foot of the Tian Shan range. Ptolemy speaks of Scythia beyond the Imaus, which is in a “Kasia Regio”, probably exhibiting the name from which Kashgar and Kashgaria (often applied to the district) are formed. The country’s people practised Zoroastrianism and Buddhism before the coming of Islam. In the Book of Han, which covers the period between 125 BC and 23 AD, it is recorded that there were 1,510 households, 18,647 people and 2,000 persons able to bear arms. By the time covered by the Book of the Later Han (roughly 25 to 170 AD), it had grown to 21,000 households and had 3,000 men able to bear arms. The Book of the Later Han provides a wealth of detail on developments in the region: "In the period of Emperor Wu [140-87 BC], the Western Regions1 were under the control of the Interior [China]. They numbered thirty-six kingdoms. The Imperial Government established a Colonel [in charge of] Envoys there to direct and protect these countries. Emperor Xuan [73-49 BC] changed this title [in 59 BC] to Protector-General. Emperor Yuan [40-33 BC] installed two Wuji Colonels to take charge of the agricultural garrisons on the frontiers of the king of Nearer Jushi [Turpan]. During the time of Emperor Ai [6 BC-AD 1] and Emperor Ping [AD 1-5], the principalities of the Western Regions split up and formed fifty-five kingdoms. Wang Mang, after he usurped the Throne [in AD 9], demoted and changed their kings and marquises. Following this, the Western Regions became resentful, and rebelled. They, therefore, broke off all relations with the Interior [China] and, all together, submitted to the Xiongnu again. The Xiongnu collected oppressively heavy taxes and the kingdoms were not able to support their demands. In the middle of the Jianwu period [AD 25-56], they each [Shanshan and Yarkand in 38, and 18 kingdoms in 45], sent envoys to ask if they could submit to the Interior [China], and to express their desire for a Protector-General. Emperor Guangwu, decided that because the Empire was not yet settled [after a long period of civil war], he had no time for outside affairs, and [therefore] finally refused his consent [in AD 45]. In the meantime, the Xiongnu became weaker. The king of Suoju [Yarkand], named Xian, wiped out several kingdoms. After Xian’s death [c. AD 62], they began to attack and fight each other. Xiao Yuan [Tura], Jingjue [Cadota], Ronglu [Niya], and Qiemo [Cherchen] were annexed by Shanshan [the Lop Nur region]. Qule [south of Keriya] and Pishan [modern Pishan or Guma] were conquered and fully occupied by Yutian [Khotan]. Yuli [Fukang], Danhuan, Guhu [Dawan Cheng], and Wutanzili were destroyed by Jushi [Turpan and Jimasa]. Later these kingdoms were re-established. During the Yongping period [AD 58-75], the Northern Xiongnu forced several countries to help them plunder the commanderies and districts of Hexi. The gates of the towns stayed shut in broad daylight." And, more particularly in reference to Kashgar itself, is the following record: "In the sixteenth Yongping year of Emperor Ming 73, Jian, the king of Qiuci (Kucha), attacked and killed Cheng, the king of Shule (Kashgar). Then he appointed the Qiuci (Kucha) Marquis of the Left, Douti, King of Shule (Kashgar). ‹See TfD› In winter 73, the Han sent the Major Ban Chao who captured and bound Douti. He appointed Zhong, the son of the elder brother of Cheng, to be king of Shule (Kashgar). Zhong later rebelled. (Ban) Chao attacked and beheaded him." THE KUSHANS The Book of the Later Han also gives the only extant historical record of Yuezhi or Kushan involvement in the Kashgar oasis: "During the Yuanchu period (114-120) in the reign of Emperor, the king of Shule (Kashgar), exiled his maternal uncle Chenpan to the Yuezhi (Kushans) for some offence. The king of the Yuezhi became very fond of him. Later, Anguo died without leaving a son. His mother directed the government of the kingdom. She agreed with the people of the country to put Yifu (lit. “posthumous child”), who was the son of a full younger brother of Chenpan on the throne as king of Shule (Kashgar). Chenpan heard of this and appealed to the Yuezhi (Kushan) king, saying: "Anguo had no son. His relative (Yifu) is weak. If one wants to put on the throne a member of (Anguo’s) mother’s family, I am Yifu’s paternal uncle, it is I who should be king." The Yuezhi (Kushans) then sent soldiers to escort him back to Shule (Kashgar). The people had previously respected and been fond of Chenpan. Besides, they dreaded the Yuezhi (Kushans). They immediately took the seal and ribbon from Yifu and went to Chenpan, and made him king. Yifu was given the title of Marquis of the town of Pangao [90 li, or 37 km, from Shule]. ‹See TfD› Then Suoju (Yarkand) continued to resist Yutian (Khotan), and put themselves under Shule (Kashgar). Thus Shule (Kashgar), became powerful and a rival to Qiuci (Kucha) and Yutian (Khotan)." However, it was not very long before the Chinese began to reassert their authority in the region: “In the second Yongjian year (127), during Emperor Shun’s reign, Chenpan sent an envoy to respectfully present offerings. The Emperor bestowed on Chenpan the title of Great Commandant-in-Chief for the Han. Chenxun, who was the son of his elder brother, was appointed Temporary Major of the Kingdom. ‹See TfD› In the fifth year (130), Chenpan sent his son to serve the Emperor and, along with envoys from Dayuan (Ferghana) and Suoju (Yarkand), brought tribute and offerings.” From an earlier part of the same text comes the following addition: “In the first Yangjia year (132), Xu You sent the king of Shule (Kashgar), Chenpan, who with 20,000 men, attacked and defeated Yutian (Khotan). He beheaded several hundred people, and released his soldiers to plunder freely. He replaced the king [of Jumi] by installing Chengguo from the family of [the previous king] Xing, and then he returned.”[38] Then the first passage continues: “In the second Yangjia year (133), Chenpan again made offerings (including) a lion and zebu cattle. ‹See TfD› Then, during Emperor Ling’s reign, in the first Jianning year, the king of Shule (Kashgar) and Commandant-in-Chief for the Han (i.e. presumably Chenpan), was shot while hunting by the youngest of his paternal uncles, Hede. Hede named himself king. ‹See TfD› In the third year (170), Meng Tuo, the Inspector of Liangzhou, sent the Provincial Officer Ren She, commanding five hundred soldiers from Dunhuang, with the Wuji Major Cao Kuan, and Chief Clerk of the Western Regions, Zhang Yan, brought troops from Yanqi (Karashahr), Qiuci (Kucha), and the Nearer and Further States of Jushi (Turpan and Jimasa), altogether numbering more than 30,000, to punish Shule (Kashgar). They attacked the town of Zhenzhong [Arach − near Maralbashi] but, having stayed for more than forty days without being able to subdue it, they withdrew. Following this, the kings of Shule (Kashgar) killed one another repeatedly while the Imperial Government was unable to prevent it.” THREE KINGDOMS TO THE SUI These centuries are marked by a general silence in sources on Kashgar and the Tarim Basin. The Weilüe, composed in the second third of the 3rd century, mentions a number of states as dependencies of Kashgar: the kingdom of Zhenzhong (Arach?), the kingdom of Suoju (Yarkand), the kingdom of Jieshi, the kingdom of Qusha, the kingdom of Xiye (Khargalik), the kingdom of Yinai (Tashkurghan), the kingdom of Manli (modern Karasul), the kingdom of Yire (Mazar − also known as Tágh Nák and Tokanak), the kingdom of Yuling, the kingdom of Juandu (‘Tax Control’ − near modern Irkeshtam), the kingdom of Xiuxiu (‘Excellent Rest Stop’ − near Karakavak), and the kingdom of Qin. However, much of the information on the Western Regions contained in the Weilüe seems to have ended roughly about (170), near the end of Han power. So, we can’t be sure that this is a reference to the state of affairs during the Cao Wei (220-265), or whether it refers to the situation before the civil war during the Later Han when China lost touch with most foreign countries and came to be divided into three separate kingdoms. Chapter 30 of the Records of the Three Kingdoms says that after the beginning of the Wei Dynasty (220) the states of the Western Regions did not arrive as before, except for the larger ones such as Kucha, Khotan, Kangju, Wusun, Kashgar, Yuezhi, Shanshan and Turpan, who are said to have come to present tribute every year, as in Han times. In 270, four states from the Western Regions were said to have presented tribute: Karashahr, Turpan, Shanshan, and Kucha. Some wooden documents from Niya seem to indicate that contacts were also maintained with Kashgar and Khotan around this time. In 422, according to the Songshu, ch. 98, the king of Shanshan, Bilong, came to the court and "the thirty-six states in the Western Regions" all swore their allegiance and presented tribute. It must be assumed that these 36 states included Kashgar. The "Songji" of the Zizhi Tongjian records that in the 5th month of 435, nine states: Kucha, Kashgar, Wusun, Yueban, Tashkurghan, Shanshan, Karashahr, Turpan and Sute all came to the Wei court. In 439, according to the Weishu, ch. 4A, Shanshan, Kashgar and Karashahr sent envoys to present tribute. According to the Weishu, ch. 102, Chapter on the Western Regions, the kingdoms of Kucha, Kashgar, Wusun, Yueban, Tashkurghan, Shanshan, Karashahr, Turpan and Sute all began sending envoys to present tribute in the Taiyuan reign period (435-440). In 453 Kashgar sent envoys to present tribute (Weishu, ch. 5), and again in 455. An embassy sent during the reign of Wencheng Di (452-466) from the king of Kashgar presented a supposed sacred relic of the Buddha; a dress which was incombustible. In 507 Kashgar, is said to have sent envoys in both the 9th and 10th months (Weishu, ch. 8). In 512, Kashgar sent envoys in the 1st and 5th months. (Weishu, ch. 8). Early in the 6th century Kashgar is included among the many territories controlled by the Yeda or Hephthalite Huns, but their empire collapsed at the onslaught of the Western Turks between 563 and 567 who then probably gained control over Kashgar and most of the states in the Tarim Basin. TANG DYNASTY The founding of the Tang dynasty in 618 saw the beginning of a prolonged struggle between China and the Western Turks for control of the Tarim Basin. In 635, the Tang Annals reported an emissary from the king of Kashgar to the Tang capital. In 639 there was a second emissary bringing products of Kashgar as a token of submission to the Tang state. Buddhist scholar Xuanzang passed through Kashgar (which he referred to as Ka-sha) in 644 on his return journey from India to China. The Buddhist religion, then beginning to decay in India, was active in Kashgar. Xuanzang recorded that they flattened their babies heads, tattooed their bodies and had green eyes. He reported that Kashgar had abundant crops, fruits and flowers, wove fine woolen stuffs and rugs. Their writing system had been adapted from Indian script but their language was different from that of other countries. The inhabitants were sincere Buddhist adherents and there were some hundreds of monasteries with more than 10,000 followers, all members of the Sarvastivadin School. At around the same era, Nestorian Christians were establishing bishoprics at Herat, Merv and Samarkand, whence they subsequently proceeded to Kashgar, and finally to China proper itself. In 646, the Turkic Kagan asked for the hand of a Tang Chinese princess, and in return the Emperor promised Kucha, Khotan, Kashgar, Karashahr and Sarikol as a marriage gift, but this did not happen as planned. In a series of campaigns between 652 and 658, with the help of the Uyghurs, the Chinese finally defeated the Western Turk tribes and took control of all their domains, including the Tarim Basin kingdoms. Karakhoja was annexed in 640, Karashahr during campaigns in 644 and 648, and Kucha fell in 648. In 662 a rebellion broke out in the Western Regions and a Chinese army sent to control it was defeated by the Tibetans south of Kashgar. After another defeat of the Tang Chinese forces in 670, the Tibetans gained control of the whole region and completely subjugated Kashgar in 676-8 and retained possession of it until 692, when the Tang dynasty regained control of all their former territories, and retained it for the next fifty years. In 722 Kashgar sent 4,000 troops to assist the Chinese to force the "Tibetans out of "Little Bolu" or Gilgit. In 728, the king of Kashgar was awarded a brevet by the Chinese emperor. In 739, the Tangshu relates that the governor of the Chinese garrison in Kashgar, with the help of Ferghana, was interfering in the affairs of the Turgesh tribes as far as Talas. In 751 the Chinese were defeated by an Arab army in the Battle of Talas. The An Lushan Rebellion led to the decline of Tang influence in Central Asia due to the fact that the Tang dynasty was forced to withdraw its troops from the region to fight An Lushan. The Tibetans cut all communication between China and the West in 766. Soon after the Chinese pilgrim monk Wukong passed through Kashgar in 753. He again reached Kashgar on his return trip from India in 786 and mentions a Chinese deputy governor as well as the local king. BATTLES WITH ARAB CALIPHATE In 711, the Arabs invaded Kashgar, but did not hold the city for any length of time. Kashgar and Turkestan lent assistance to the reigning queen of Bukhara, to enable her to repel the Arabs. Although the Muslim religion from the very commencement sustained checks, it nevertheless made its weight felt upon the independent states of Turkestan to the north and east, and thus acquired a steadily growing influence. It was not, however, till the 10th century that Islam was established at Kashgar, under the Kara-Khanid Khanate. THE TURKIC RULE According to the 10th-century text, Hudud al-'alam, "the chiefs of Kashghar in the days of old were from the Qarluq, or from the Yaghma." The Karluks, Yaghmas and other tribes such as the Chigils formed the Karakhanids. The Karakhanid Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan converted to Islam in the 10th century and captured Kashgar. Kashgar was the capital of the Karakhanid state for a time but later the capital was moved to Balasaghun. During the latter part of the 10th century, the Muslim Karakhanids began a struggle against the Buddhist Kingdom of Khotan, and the Khotanese defeated the Karakhanids and captured Kashgar in 970. Chinese sources recorded the king of Khotan offering to send them a dancing elephant captured from Kashgar. Later in 1006, the Karakhanids of Kashgar under Yusuf Kadr Khan conquered Khotan. The Karakhanid Khanate however was beset with internal strife, and the khanate split into two, the Eastern and Western Karakhanid Khanates, with Kashgar falling within the domain of the Eastern Karakhanid state. In 1089, the Western Karakhanids fell under the control of the Seljuks, but the Eastern Karakhanids was for the most part independent. Both the Karakhanid states were defeated in the 12th century by the Kara-Khitans who captured Balasaghun, however Karakhanid rule continued in Kashgar under the suzerainty of the Kara-Khitans. The Kara-Khitan rulers followed a policy of religious tolerance, Islamic religious life continued uninterrupted and Kashgar was also a Nestorian metropolitan see. The last Karakhanid of Kashgar was killed in a revolt in 1211 by the city's notables. Kuchlug, a usurper of the throne of the Kara-Khitans, then attacked Kashgar which finally surrendered in 1214. THE MONGOLS The Kara-Khitai in their turn were swept away in 1219 by Genghis Khan. After his death, Kashgar came under the rule of the Chagatai Khans. Marco Polo visited the city, which he calls Cascar, about 1273-4 and recorded the presence of numerous Nestorian Christians, who had their own churches. Later In the 14th century, a Chagataid khan Tughluq Timur converted to Islam, and Islamic tradition began to reassert its ascendancy. In 1389−1390 Tamerlane ravaged Kashgar, Andijan and the intervening country. Kashgar endured a troubled time, and in 1514, on the invasion of the Khan Sultan Said, was destroyed by Mirza Ababakar, who with the aid of ten thousand men built a new fort with massive defences higher up on the banks of the Tuman river. The dynasty of the Chagatai Khans collapsed in 1572 with the division of the country among rival factions; soon after, two powerful Khoja factions, the White and Black Mountaineers (Ak Taghliq or Afaqi, and Kara Taghliq or Ishaqi), arose whose differences and war-making gestures, with the intermittent episode of the Oirats of Dzungaria, make up much of recorded history in Kashgar until 1759. The Dzungar Khanate conquered Kashgar and set up the Khoja as their puppet rulers. QING CONQUEST The Qing dynasty defeated the Dzungar Khanate during the Ten Great Campaigns and took control of Kashgar in 1759. The conquerors consolidated their authority by settling other ethnics emigrants in the vicinity of a Manchu garrison. Rumours flew around Central Asia that the Qing planned to launch expeditions towards Transoxiana and Samarkand, the chiefs of which sought assistance from the Afghan king Ahmed Shah Abdali. The alleged expedition never happened so Ahmad Shah withdrew his forces from Kokand. He also dispatched an ambassador to Beijing to discuss the situation of the Afaqi Khojas, but the representative was not well received, and Ahmed Shah was too busy fighting off the Sikhs to attempt to enforce his demands through arms. The Qing continued to hold Kashgar with occasional interruptions during the Afaqi Khoja revolts. One of the most serious of these occurred in 1827, when the city was taken by Jahanghir Khoja; Chang-lung, however, the Qing general of Ili, regained possession of Kashgar and the other rebellious cities in 1828. The Kokand Khanate raided Kashgar several times. A revolt in 1829 under Mahommed Ali Khan and Yusuf, brother of Jahanghir resulted in the concession of several important trade privileges to the Muslims of the district of Altishahr (the "six cities"), as it was then called. The area enjoyed relative calm until 1846 under the rule of Zahir-ud-din, the local Uyghur governor, but in that year a new Khoja revolt under Kath Tora led to his accession as the authoritarian ruler of the city. However, his reign was brief—at the end of seventy-five days, on the approach of the Chinese, he fled back to Khokand amid the jeers of the inhabitants. The last of the Khoja revolts (1857) was of about equal duration, and took place under Wali-Khan, who murdered the well-known traveler Adolf Schlagintweit. 1862 CHINESE HUI REVOLT The great Dungan revolt (1862–1877) involved insurrection among various Muslim ethnic groups. It broke out in 1862 in Gansu then spread rapidly to Dzungaria and through the line of towns in the Tarim Basin. Dungan troops based in Yarkand rose and in August 1864 massacred some seven thousand Chinese and their Manchu commander. The inhabitants of Kashgar, rising in their turn against their masters, invoked the aid of Sadik Beg, a Kyrgyz chief, who was reinforced by Buzurg Khan, the heir of Jahanghir Khoja, and his general Yakub Beg. The latter men were dispatched at Sadik’s request by the ruler of Khokand to raise what troops they could to aid his Muslim friends in Kashgar. Sadik Beg soon repented of having asked for a Khoja, and eventually marched against Kashgar, which by this time had succumbed to Buzurg Khan and Yakub Beg, but was defeated and driven back to Khokand. Buzurg Khan delivered himself up to indolence and debauchery, but Yakub Beg, with singular energy and perseverance, made himself master of Yangi Shahr, Yangi-Hissar, Yarkand and other towns, and eventually became sole master of the country, Buzurg Khan proving himself totally unfit for the post of ruler. With the overthrow of Chinese rule in 1865 by Yakub Beg (1820–1877), the manufacturing industries of Kashgar are supposed to have declined. Yaqub Beg entered into relations and signed treaties with the Russian Empire and the British Empire, but when he tried to get their support against China, he failed. Kashgar and the other cities of the Tarim Basin remained under Yakub Beg’s rule until May 1877, when he died at Korla. Thereafter Kashgaria was reconquered by the forces of the Qing general Zuo Zongtang during the Qing reconquest of Xinjiang. QING RULE There were eras in Xinjiang's history where intermarriage was common, "laxity" which set upon Uyghur women led them to marry Chinese men and not wear the veil in the period after Yaqub Beg's rule ended, it is also believed by Uyghurs that some Uyghurs have Han Chinese ancestry from historical intermarriage, such as those living in Turpan. Even though Muslim women are forbidden to marry non-Muslims in Islamic law, from 1880-1949 it was frequently violated in Xinjiang since Chinese men married Muslim Turki (Uyghur) women, a reason suggested by foriengers that it was due to the women being poor, while the Turki women who married Chinese were labelled as whores by the Turki community, these marriages were illegitimate according to Islamic law but the women obtained benefits from marrying Chinese men since the Chinese defended them from Islamic authorities so the women were not subjected to the tax on prostitution and were able to save their income for themselves. Chinese men gave their Turki wives privileges which Turki men's wives did not have, since the wives of Chinese did not have to wear a veil and a Chinese man in Kashgar once beat a mullah who tried to force his Turki Kashgari wife to veil. The Turki women also benefited in that they were not subjected to any legal binding to their Chinese husbands so they could make their Chinese husbands provide them with as much their money as she wanted for her relatives and herself since otherwise the women could just leave, and the property of Chinese men was left to their Turki wives after they died. Turki women considered Turki men to be inferior husbands to Chinese and Hindus. Because they were viewed as "impure", Islamic cemeteries banned the Turki wives of Chinese men from being buried within them, the Turki women got around this problem by giving shrines donations and buying a grave in other towns. Besides Chinese men, other men such as Hindus, Armenians, Jews, Russians, and Badakhshanis intermarried with local Turki women. The local society accepted the Turki women and Chinese men's mixed offspring as their own people despite the marriages being in violation of Islamic law. Turki women also conducted temporary marriages with Chinese men such as Chinese soldiers temporarily stationed around them as soldiers for tours of duty, after which the Chinese men returned to their own cities, with the Chinese men selling their mixed daughters with the Turki women to his comrades, taking their sons with them if they could afford it but leaving them if they couldn't, and selling their temporary Turki wife to a comrade or leaving her behind. An anti-Russian uproar broke out when Russian customs officials, 3 Cossacks and a Russian courier invited local Turki (Uyghur) prostitutes to a party in January 1902 in Kashgar, this caused a massive brawl by the inflamed local Turki Muslim populace against the Russians on the pretense of protecting Muslim women because there was anti-Russian sentiment being built up, even though morality was not strict in Kashgar, the local Turki Muslims violently clashed with the Russians before they were dispersed by guards, the Chinese sought to end to tensions to prevent the Russians from building up a pretext to invade. After the riot, the Russians sent troops to Sarikol in Tashkurghan and demanded that the Sarikol postal services be placed under Russian supervision, the locals of Sarikol believed that the Russians would seize the entire district from the Chinese and send more soldiers even after the Russians tried to negotiate with the Begs of Sarikol and sway them to their side, they failed since the Sarikoli officials and authorities demanded in a petition to the Amban of Yarkand that they be evacuated to Yarkand to avoid being harassed by the Russians and objected to the Russian presence in Sarikol, the Sarikolis did not believe the Russian claim that they would leave them alone and only involved themselves in the mail service. Many of the young Kashgari women were most attractive in appearance, and some of the little girls quite lovely, their plaits of long hair falling from under a jaunty little embroidered cap, their big dark eyes, flashing teeth and piquant olive faces reminding me of Italian or Spanish children. One most beautiful boy stands out in my memory. He was clad in a new shirt and trousers of flowered pink, his crimson velvet cap embroidered with gold, and as he smiled and salaamed to us I thought he looked like a fairy prince. The women wear their hair in two or five plaits much thickened and lengthened by the addition of yak's hair, but the children in several tiny plaits. The peasants are fairly well off, as the soil is rich, the abundant water-supply free, and the taxation comparatively light. It was always interesting to meet them taking their live stock into market. Flocks of sheep with tiny lambs, black and white, pattered along the dusty road; here a goat followed its master like a dog, trotting behind the diminutive ass which the farmer bestrode; or boys, clad in the whity-brown native cloth, shouted incessantly at donkeys almost invisible under enormous loads of forage, or carried fowls and ducks in bunches head downwards, a sight that always made me long to come to the rescue of the luckless birds. It was pleasant to see the women riding alone on horseback, managing their mounts to perfection. They formed a sharp contrast to their Persian sisters, who either sit behind their husbands or have their steeds led by the bridle; and instead of keeping silence in public, as is the rule for the shrouded women of Iran, these farmers' wives chaffered and haggled with the men in the bazar outside the city, transacting business with their veils thrown back. Certainly the mullas do their best to keep the fair sex in their place, and are in the habit of beating those who show their faces in the Great Bazar. But I was told that poetic justice had lately been meted out to one of these upholders of the law of Islam, for by mistake he chastised a Kashgari woman married to a Chinaman, whereupon the irate husband set upon him with a big stick and castigated him soundly. That a Muslim should take in marriage one of alien faith is not objected to; it is rather deemed a meritorious act thus to bring an unbeliever to the true religion. The Muslim woman, on the other hand, must not be given in marriage to a non-Muslim; such a union is regarded as the most heinous of sins. In this matter, however, compromises are sometimes made with heaven: the marriage of a Turki princess with the emperor Ch'ien-lung has already been referred to; and, when the present writer passed through Minjol (a day's journey west of Kashgar) in 1902, a Chinese with a Turki wife (? concubine) was presented to him. FIRST EAST TURKESTAN REPUBLIC Kashgar was the scene of continual battles from 1933 to 1934. Ma Shaowu, a Chinese Muslim, was the Tao-yin of Kashgar, and he fought against Uyghur rebels. He was joined by another Chinese Muslim general, Ma Zhancang. BATTLE OF KASHGAR (1933) Uighur and Kirghiz forces, led by the Bughra brothers and Tawfiq Bay, attempted to take the New City of Kashgar from Chinese Muslim troops under General Ma Zhancang. They were defeated. Tawfiq Bey, a Syrian Arab traveler, who held the title Sayyid (descendent of prophet Muhammed) and arrived at Kashgar on August 26, 1933, was shot in the stomach by the Chinese Muslim troops in September. Previously Ma Zhancang arranged to have the Uighur leader Timur Beg killed and beheaded on August 9, 1933, displaying his head outside of Id Kah Mosque. Han chinese troops commanded by Brigadier Yang were absorbed into Ma Zhancang's army. A number of Han chinese officers were spotted wearing the green uniforms of Ma Zhancang's unit of the 36th division, presumably they had converted to Islam. BATTLE OF KASHGAR (1934) The 36th division General Ma Fuyuan led a Chinese Muslim army to storm Kashgar on February 6, 1934, attacking the Uighur and Kirghiz rebels of the First East Turkestan Republic. He freed another 36th division general, Ma Zhancang, who was trapped with his Chinese Muslim and Han Chinese troops in Kashgar New City by the Uighurs and Kirghiz since May 22, 1933. In January, 1934, Ma Zhancang's Chinese Muslim troops repulsed six Uighur attacks, launched by Khoja Niyaz, who arrived at the city on January 13, 1934, inflicting massive casualties on the Uighur forces. From 2,000 to 8,000 Uighur civilians in Kashgar Old City were massacred by Tungans in February, 1934, in revenge for the Kizil massacre, after retreating of Uighur forces from the city to Yengi Hisar. The Chinese Muslim and 36th division Chief General Ma Zhongying, who arrived at Kashgar on April 7, 1934, gave a speech at Id Kah Mosque in April, reminding the Uighurs to be loyal to the Republic of China government at Nanjing. Several British citizens at the British consulate were killed or wounded by the 36th division on March 16, 1934. PEOPLE´S REPUBLIC OF CHINA Kashgar was incorporated into the People's Republic of China in 1949. During the Cultural Revolution, one of the largest statues of Mao in China was built in Kashgar, near People's Square. In 1986, the Chinese government designated Kashgar a "city of historical and cultural significance". Kashgar and surrounding regions have been the site of Uyghur unrest since the 1990s. In 2008, two Uyghur men carried out a vehicular, IED and knife attack against police officers. In 2009, development of Kashgar's old town accelerated after the revelations of the deadly role of faulty architecture during the 2008 Sichuan earthquake. Many of the old houses in the old town were built without regulation, and as a result, officials found them to be overcrowded and non-compliant with fire and earthquake codes. When the plan started, 42% of the city's residents lived in the old town. With compensation, residents of faulty buildings are being counseled to move to newer, safer buildings that will replace the historic structures in the $448 million plan, including high-rise apartments, plazas, and reproductions of ancient Islamic architecture. The European Parliament issued a resolution in 2011 calling for "culture-sensitive methods of renovation." The International Scientific Committee on Earthen Architectural Heritage (ISCEAH) has expressed concern over the demolition and reconstruction of historic buildings. ISCEAH has, additionally, urged the implementation of techniques utilized elsewhere in the world to address earthquake vulnerability. Following the July 2009 Urumqi riots, the government focused on local economic development in an attempt to ameliorate ethnic tensions in the greater Xinjiang region. Kashgar was made into a Special Economic Zone in 2010, the first such zone in China's far west. In 2011, a spate of violence over two days killed dozens of people. By May 2012 two-thirds of the old city had been demolished, fulfilling "political as well as economic goals." In July 2014 the Imam of the Id Kah Mosque, Juma Tayir, was assassinated in Kashgar. CLIMATE Kashgar features a desert climate (Köppen BWk) with hot summers and cold winters, with large temperature differences between those two seasons: The monthly 24-hour average temperature ranges from −5.3 °C in January to 25.6 °C in July, while the annual mean is 11.84 °C. Spring is long and arrives quickly, while fall is somewhat brief in comparison. Kashgar is one of the driest cities on the planet, averaging only 64 millimetres of precipitation per year. The city’s wettest month, July, only sees on average 9.1 millimetres of rain. Because of the extremely arid conditions, snowfall is rare, despite the cold winters. Records have been as low as −24.4 °C in January and up to 40.1 °C in July. The frost-free period averages 215 days. With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 50% in March to 70% in September, the city receives 2,726 hours of bright sunshine annually. DEMOGRAPHICS Kashgar is predominately peopled by Muslim Uyghurs. Compared to Ürümqi, Xinjiang's capital and largest city, Kashgar is less industrial and has significantly fewer Han Chinese residents. ECONOMICS AND SOCIETY The city has a very important Sunday market. Thousands of farmers from the surrounding fertile lands come into the city to sell a wide variety of fruit and vegetables. Kashgar’s livestock market is also very lively. Silk and carpets made in Hotan are sold at bazaars, as well as local crafts, such as copper teapots and wooden jewellery boxes. In order to boost the economy in Kashgar region, the government classified the area as the sixth Special Economic Zone of China in May 2010. Mahmud al-Kashgari (Turkish: Kâşgarlı Mahmud) (Mahmut from Kashgar) wrote the first Turkic–Arabic Exemplary Dictionary called Divan-ı Lugat-it Türk[citation needed] The movie The Kite Runner was filmed in Kashgar. Kashgar and the surrounding countryside stood in for Kabul and Afghanistan, since filming in Afghanistan was not possible due to safety and security reasons. SIGHTS Kashgar's Old City has been called "the best-preserved example of a traditional Islamic city to be found anywhere in Central Asia". It is estimated to attract more than one million tourists annually. - Id Kah Mosque, the largest mosque in China, is located in the heart of the city. - People's Park, the main public park in central Kashgar. - An 18 m high statue of Mao Zedong in Kashgar is one of the few large-scale statues of Mao remaining in China. - The tomb of Afaq Khoja in Kashgar is considered the holiest Muslim site in Xinjiang. Built in the 17th century, the tiled mausoleum 5 km northeast of the city centre also contains the tombs of five generations of his family. Abakh was a powerful ruler, controlling Khotan, Yarkand, Korla, Kucha and Aksu as well as Kashgar. Among some Uyghur Muslims, he was considered a great Saint (Aulia). - Sunday Market in Kashgar is renowned as the biggest market in central Asia; a pivotal trading point along the Silk Road where goods have been traded for more than 2,000 years. The market is open every day but Sunday is the largest. TRANSPORTATION AIR Kashgar Airport serves mainly domestic flights, the majority of them from Urumqi. The only scheduled international flights are passenger and cargo services with Pakistan's capital Islamabad. RAIL Kashgar has the westernmost railway station in China. It is connected to the rest of China's rail network via the Southern Xinjiang Railway, which was built in December 1999. Kashgar–Hotan Railway opened for passenger traffic in June 2011, and connected Kashgar with cities in the southern Tarim Basin including Shache (Yarkand), Yecheng (Kargilik) and Hotan. Travel time to Urumqi from Kashgar is approximately 25 hours, while travel time to Hotan is approximately ten hours. The investigation work of a further extension of the railway line to Pakistan has begun. In November 2009, Pakistan and China agreed to set up a joint venture to do a feasibility study of the proposed rail link via the Khunjerab Pass. Proposals for a rail connection to Osh in Kyrgyzstan have also been discussed at various levels since at least 1996. In 2012, a standard gauge railway from Kashgar via Tajikistan and Afghanistan to Iran and beyond has been proposed. ROAD The Karakorum highway (KKH) links Islamabad, Pakistan with Kashgar over the Khunjerab Pass. The China–Pakistan Economic Corridor is a multibillion-dollar project was that will upgrade transport links between China and Pakistan, including the upgrades to the Karakorum highway. Bus routes exist for passenger travel south into Pakistan. Kyrgyzstan is also accessible from Kashgar, via the Torugart Pass and Irkeshtam Pass; as of summer 2007, daily bus service connects Kashgar with Bishkek’s Western Bus Terminal. Kashgar is also located on China National Highways G314 (which runs to Khunjerab Pass on the Sino−Pakistani border, and, in the opposite direction, towards Ürümqi), and G315, which runs to Xining, Qinghai from Kashgar. WIKIPEDIA

Kashgar is an oasis city with an approximate population of 350,000. It is the westernmost city in China, located near the border with Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. Kashgar has a rich history of over 2,000 years and served as a trading post and strategically important city on the Silk Road between China, the Middle East, and Europe. Kashgar is part of the China–Pakistan Economic Corridor. Located historically at the convergence point of widely varying cultures and empires, Kashgar has been under the rule of the Chinese, Turkic, Mongol, and Tibetan empires. The city has also been the site of an extraordinary number of battles between various groups of people on the steppes. Now administered as a county-level unit of the People's Republic of China, Kashgar is the administrative centre of its eponymous prefecture in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region which has an area of 162,000 square kilometres and a population of approximately 3.5 million. The city's urban area covers 15 km2, though its administrative area extends over 555 km2. NAME The modern Chinese name is 喀什 (Kāshí), a shortened form of the longer and less-frequently used (simplified Chinese: 喀什噶尔; traditional Chinese: 喀什噶爾; pinyin: Kāshígé’ěr; Uyghur: قەشقەر‎). Ptolemy (AD 90-168), in his Geography, Chapter 15.3A, refers to Kashgar as “Kasi”. Its western and probably indigenous name is the Kāš ("rock"), to which the East Iranian -γar ("mountain"); cf. Pashto and Middle Persian gar/ġar, from Old Persian/Pahlavi girīwa ("hill; ridge (of a mountain)") was attached. Alternative historical Romanizations for "Kashgar" include Cascar and Cashgar. Non-native names for the city, such as the old Chinese name Shule 疏勒 and Tibetan Śu-lig may have originated as an attempts to transcribe the Sanskrit name for Kashgar, Śrīkrīrāti ("fortunate hospitality") Variant transcriptions of the official Uyghur: يېڭىشەھەر‎ include: K̂äxk̂är or Kaxgar, as well as Jangi-schahr, Kashgar Yangi Shahr, K’o-shih-ka-erh, K’o-shih-ka-erh-hsin-ch’eng, Ko-shih-ka-erh-hui-ch’eng, K’o-shih-ko-erh-hsin-ch’eng, New Kashgar, Sheleh, Shuleh, Shulen, Shu-lo, Su-lo, Su-lo-chen, Su-lo-hsien, Yangi-shaar, Yangi-shahr, Yangishar, Yéngisheher, Yengixəh̨ər and Еңишәһәр. HISTORY HAN DYNASTY The earliest mention of Kashgar occurs when a Chinese Han dynasty envoy traveled the Northern Silk Road to explore lands to the west. Another early mention of Kashgar is during the Former Han (also known as the Western Han dynasty), when in 76 BC the Chinese conquered the Xiongnu, Yutian (Khotan), Sulei (Kashgar), and a group of states in the Tarim basin almost up to the foot of the Tian Shan range. Ptolemy speaks of Scythia beyond the Imaus, which is in a “Kasia Regio”, probably exhibiting the name from which Kashgar and Kashgaria (often applied to the district) are formed. The country’s people practised Zoroastrianism and Buddhism before the coming of Islam. In the Book of Han, which covers the period between 125 BC and 23 AD, it is recorded that there were 1,510 households, 18,647 people and 2,000 persons able to bear arms. By the time covered by the Book of the Later Han (roughly 25 to 170 AD), it had grown to 21,000 households and had 3,000 men able to bear arms. The Book of the Later Han provides a wealth of detail on developments in the region: "In the period of Emperor Wu [140-87 BC], the Western Regions1 were under the control of the Interior [China]. They numbered thirty-six kingdoms. The Imperial Government established a Colonel [in charge of] Envoys there to direct and protect these countries. Emperor Xuan [73-49 BC] changed this title [in 59 BC] to Protector-General. Emperor Yuan [40-33 BC] installed two Wuji Colonels to take charge of the agricultural garrisons on the frontiers of the king of Nearer Jushi [Turpan]. During the time of Emperor Ai [6 BC-AD 1] and Emperor Ping [AD 1-5], the principalities of the Western Regions split up and formed fifty-five kingdoms. Wang Mang, after he usurped the Throne [in AD 9], demoted and changed their kings and marquises. Following this, the Western Regions became resentful, and rebelled. They, therefore, broke off all relations with the Interior [China] and, all together, submitted to the Xiongnu again. The Xiongnu collected oppressively heavy taxes and the kingdoms were not able to support their demands. In the middle of the Jianwu period [AD 25-56], they each [Shanshan and Yarkand in 38, and 18 kingdoms in 45], sent envoys to ask if they could submit to the Interior [China], and to express their desire for a Protector-General. Emperor Guangwu, decided that because the Empire was not yet settled [after a long period of civil war], he had no time for outside affairs, and [therefore] finally refused his consent [in AD 45]. In the meantime, the Xiongnu became weaker. The king of Suoju [Yarkand], named Xian, wiped out several kingdoms. After Xian’s death [c. AD 62], they began to attack and fight each other. Xiao Yuan [Tura], Jingjue [Cadota], Ronglu [Niya], and Qiemo [Cherchen] were annexed by Shanshan [the Lop Nur region]. Qule [south of Keriya] and Pishan [modern Pishan or Guma] were conquered and fully occupied by Yutian [Khotan]. Yuli [Fukang], Danhuan, Guhu [Dawan Cheng], and Wutanzili were destroyed by Jushi [Turpan and Jimasa]. Later these kingdoms were re-established. During the Yongping period [AD 58-75], the Northern Xiongnu forced several countries to help them plunder the commanderies and districts of Hexi. The gates of the towns stayed shut in broad daylight." And, more particularly in reference to Kashgar itself, is the following record: "In the sixteenth Yongping year of Emperor Ming 73, Jian, the king of Qiuci (Kucha), attacked and killed Cheng, the king of Shule (Kashgar). Then he appointed the Qiuci (Kucha) Marquis of the Left, Douti, King of Shule (Kashgar). ‹See TfD› In winter 73, the Han sent the Major Ban Chao who captured and bound Douti. He appointed Zhong, the son of the elder brother of Cheng, to be king of Shule (Kashgar). Zhong later rebelled. (Ban) Chao attacked and beheaded him." THE KUSHANS The Book of the Later Han also gives the only extant historical record of Yuezhi or Kushan involvement in the Kashgar oasis: "During the Yuanchu period (114-120) in the reign of Emperor, the king of Shule (Kashgar), exiled his maternal uncle Chenpan to the Yuezhi (Kushans) for some offence. The king of the Yuezhi became very fond of him. Later, Anguo died without leaving a son. His mother directed the government of the kingdom. She agreed with the people of the country to put Yifu (lit. “posthumous child”), who was the son of a full younger brother of Chenpan on the throne as king of Shule (Kashgar). Chenpan heard of this and appealed to the Yuezhi (Kushan) king, saying: "Anguo had no son. His relative (Yifu) is weak. If one wants to put on the throne a member of (Anguo’s) mother’s family, I am Yifu’s paternal uncle, it is I who should be king." The Yuezhi (Kushans) then sent soldiers to escort him back to Shule (Kashgar). The people had previously respected and been fond of Chenpan. Besides, they dreaded the Yuezhi (Kushans). They immediately took the seal and ribbon from Yifu and went to Chenpan, and made him king. Yifu was given the title of Marquis of the town of Pangao [90 li, or 37 km, from Shule]. ‹See TfD› Then Suoju (Yarkand) continued to resist Yutian (Khotan), and put themselves under Shule (Kashgar). Thus Shule (Kashgar), became powerful and a rival to Qiuci (Kucha) and Yutian (Khotan)." However, it was not very long before the Chinese began to reassert their authority in the region: “In the second Yongjian year (127), during Emperor Shun’s reign, Chenpan sent an envoy to respectfully present offerings. The Emperor bestowed on Chenpan the title of Great Commandant-in-Chief for the Han. Chenxun, who was the son of his elder brother, was appointed Temporary Major of the Kingdom. ‹See TfD› In the fifth year (130), Chenpan sent his son to serve the Emperor and, along with envoys from Dayuan (Ferghana) and Suoju (Yarkand), brought tribute and offerings.” From an earlier part of the same text comes the following addition: “In the first Yangjia year (132), Xu You sent the king of Shule (Kashgar), Chenpan, who with 20,000 men, attacked and defeated Yutian (Khotan). He beheaded several hundred people, and released his soldiers to plunder freely. He replaced the king [of Jumi] by installing Chengguo from the family of [the previous king] Xing, and then he returned.” Then the first passage continues: “In the second Yangjia year (133), Chenpan again made offerings (including) a lion and zebu cattle. ‹See TfD› Then, during Emperor Ling’s reign, in the first Jianning year, the king of Shule (Kashgar) and Commandant-in-Chief for the Han (i.e. presumably Chenpan), was shot while hunting by the youngest of his paternal uncles, Hede. Hede named himself king. ‹See TfD› In the third year (170), Meng Tuo, the Inspector of Liangzhou, sent the Provincial Officer Ren She, commanding five hundred soldiers from Dunhuang, with the Wuji Major Cao Kuan, and Chief Clerk of the Western Regions, Zhang Yan, brought troops from Yanqi (Karashahr), Qiuci (Kucha), and the Nearer and Further States of Jushi (Turpan and Jimasa), altogether numbering more than 30,000, to punish Shule (Kashgar). They attacked the town of Zhenzhong [Arach − near Maralbashi] but, having stayed for more than forty days without being able to subdue it, they withdrew. Following this, the kings of Shule (Kashgar) killed one another repeatedly while the Imperial Government was unable to prevent it.” THREE KINGDOMS TO THE SUI These centuries are marked by a general silence in sources on Kashgar and the Tarim Basin. The Weilüe, composed in the second third of the 3rd century, mentions a number of states as dependencies of Kashgar: the kingdom of Zhenzhong (Arach?), the kingdom of Suoju (Yarkand), the kingdom of Jieshi, the kingdom of Qusha, the kingdom of Xiye (Khargalik), the kingdom of Yinai (Tashkurghan), the kingdom of Manli (modern Karasul), the kingdom of Yire (Mazar − also known as Tágh Nák and Tokanak), the kingdom of Yuling, the kingdom of Juandu (‘Tax Control’ − near modern Irkeshtam), the kingdom of Xiuxiu (‘Excellent Rest Stop’ − near Karakavak), and the kingdom of Qin. However, much of the information on the Western Regions contained in the Weilüe seems to have ended roughly about (170), near the end of Han power. So, we can’t be sure that this is a reference to the state of affairs during the Cao Wei (220-265), or whether it refers to the situation before the civil war during the Later Han when China lost touch with most foreign countries and came to be divided into three separate kingdoms. Chapter 30 of the Records of the Three Kingdoms says that after the beginning of the Wei Dynasty (220) the states of the Western Regions did not arrive as before, except for the larger ones such as Kucha, Khotan, Kangju, Wusun, Kashgar, Yuezhi, Shanshan and Turpan, who are said to have come to present tribute every year, as in Han times. In 270, four states from the Western Regions were said to have presented tribute: Karashahr, Turpan, Shanshan, and Kucha. Some wooden documents from Niya seem to indicate that contacts were also maintained with Kashgar and Khotan around this time. In 422, according to the Songshu, ch. 98, the king of Shanshan, Bilong, came to the court and "the thirty-six states in the Western Regions" all swore their allegiance and presented tribute. It must be assumed that these 36 states included Kashgar. The "Songji" of the Zizhi Tongjian records that in the 5th month of 435, nine states: Kucha, Kashgar, Wusun, Yueban, Tashkurghan, Shanshan, Karashahr, Turpan and Sute all came to the Wei court. In 439, according to the Weishu, ch. 4A, Shanshan, Kashgar and Karashahr sent envoys to present tribute. According to the Weishu, ch. 102, Chapter on the Western Regions, the kingdoms of Kucha, Kashgar, Wusun, Yueban, Tashkurghan, Shanshan, Karashahr, Turpan and Sute all began sending envoys to present tribute in the Taiyuan reign period (435-440). In 453 Kashgar sent envoys to present tribute (Weishu, ch. 5), and again in 455. An embassy sent during the reign of Wencheng Di (452-466) from the king of Kashgar presented a supposed sacred relic of the Buddha; a dress which was incombustible. In 507 Kashgar, is said to have sent envoys in both the 9th and 10th months (Weishu, ch. 8). In 512, Kashgar sent envoys in the 1st and 5th months. (Weishu, ch. 8). Early in the 6th century Kashgar is included among the many territories controlled by the Yeda or Hephthalite Huns, but their empire collapsed at the onslaught of the Western Turks between 563 and 567 who then probably gained control over Kashgar and most of the states in the Tarim Basin. TANG DYNASTY The founding of the Tang dynasty in 618 saw the beginning of a prolonged struggle between China and the Western Turks for control of the Tarim Basin. In 635, the Tang Annals reported an emissary from the king of Kashgar to the Tang capital. In 639 there was a second emissary bringing products of Kashgar as a token of submission to the Tang state. Buddhist scholar Xuanzang passed through Kashgar (which he referred to as Ka-sha) in 644 on his return journey from India to China. The Buddhist religion, then beginning to decay in India, was active in Kashgar. Xuanzang recorded that they flattened their babies heads, tattooed their bodies and had green eyes. He reported that Kashgar had abundant crops, fruits and flowers, wove fine woolen stuffs and rugs. Their writing system had been adapted from Indian script but their language was different from that of other countries. The inhabitants were sincere Buddhist adherents and there were some hundreds of monasteries with more than 10,000 followers, all members of the Sarvastivadin School. At around the same era, Nestorian Christians were establishing bishoprics at Herat, Merv and Samarkand, whence they subsequently proceeded to Kashgar, and finally to China proper itself. In 646, the Turkic Kagan asked for the hand of a Tang Chinese princess, and in return the Emperor promised Kucha, Khotan, Kashgar, Karashahr and Sarikol as a marriage gift, but this did not happen as planned. In a series of campaigns between 652 and 658, with the help of the Uyghurs, the Chinese finally defeated the Western Turk tribes and took control of all their domains, including the Tarim Basin kingdoms. Karakhoja was annexed in 640, Karashahr during campaigns in 644 and 648, and Kucha fell in 648. In 662 a rebellion broke out in the Western Regions and a Chinese army sent to control it was defeated by the Tibetans south of Kashgar. After another defeat of the Tang Chinese forces in 670, the Tibetans gained control of the whole region and completely subjugated Kashgar in 676-8 and retained possession of it until 692, when the Tang dynasty regained control of all their former territories, and retained it for the next fifty years. In 722 Kashgar sent 4,000 troops to assist the Chinese to force the "Tibetans out of "Little Bolu" or Gilgit. In 728, the king of Kashgar was awarded a brevet by the Chinese emperor. In 739, the Tangshu relates that the governor of the Chinese garrison in Kashgar, with the help of Ferghana, was interfering in the affairs of the Turgesh tribes as far as Talas. In 751 the Chinese were defeated by an Arab army in the Battle of Talas. The An Lushan Rebellion led to the decline of Tang influence in Central Asia due to the fact that the Tang dynasty was forced to withdraw its troops from the region to fight An Lushan. The Tibetans cut all communication between China and the West in 766. Soon after the Chinese pilgrim monk Wukong passed through Kashgar in 753. He again reached Kashgar on his return trip from India in 786 and mentions a Chinese deputy governor as well as the local king. BATTLES WITH ARAB CALIPHATE In 711, the Arabs invaded Kashgar, but did not hold the city for any length of time. Kashgar and Turkestan lent assistance to the reigning queen of Bukhara, to enable her to repel the Arabs. Although the Muslim religion from the very commencement sustained checks, it nevertheless made its weight felt upon the independent states of Turkestan to the north and east, and thus acquired a steadily growing influence. It was not, however, till the 10th century that Islam was established at Kashgar, under the Kara-Khanid Khanate. THE TURKIC RULE According to the 10th-century text, Hudud al-'alam, "the chiefs of Kashghar in the days of old were from the Qarluq, or from the Yaghma." The Karluks, Yaghmas and other tribes such as the Chigils formed the Karakhanids. The Karakhanid Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan converted to Islam in the 10th century and captured Kashgar. Kashgar was the capital of the Karakhanid state for a time but later the capital was moved to Balasaghun. During the latter part of the 10th century, the Muslim Karakhanids began a struggle against the Buddhist Kingdom of Khotan, and the Khotanese defeated the Karakhanids and captured Kashgar in 970. Chinese sources recorded the king of Khotan offering to send them a dancing elephant captured from Kashgar. Later in 1006, the Karakhanids of Kashgar under Yusuf Kadr Khan conquered Khotan. The Karakhanid Khanate however was beset with internal strife, and the khanate split into two, the Eastern and Western Karakhanid Khanates, with Kashgar falling within the domain of the Eastern Karakhanid state. In 1089, the Western Karakhanids fell under the control of the Seljuks, but the Eastern Karakhanids was for the most part independent. Both the Karakhanid states were defeated in the 12th century by the Kara-Khitans who captured Balasaghun, however Karakhanid rule continued in Kashgar under the suzerainty of the Kara-Khitans. The Kara-Khitan rulers followed a policy of religious tolerance, Islamic religious life continued uninterrupted and Kashgar was also a Nestorian metropolitan see. The last Karakhanid of Kashgar was killed in a revolt in 1211 by the city's notables. Kuchlug, a usurper of the throne of the Kara-Khitans, then attacked Kashgar which finally surrendered in 1214. THE MONGOLS The Kara-Khitai in their turn were swept away in 1219 by Genghis Khan. After his death, Kashgar came under the rule of the Chagatai Khans. Marco Polo visited the city, which he calls Cascar, about 1273-4 and recorded the presence of numerous Nestorian Christians, who had their own churches. Later In the 14th century, a Chagataid khan Tughluq Timur converted to Islam, and Islamic tradition began to reassert its ascendancy. In 1389−1390 Tamerlane ravaged Kashgar, Andijan and the intervening country. Kashgar endured a troubled time, and in 1514, on the invasion of the Khan Sultan Said, was destroyed by Mirza Ababakar, who with the aid of ten thousand men built a new fort with massive defences higher up on the banks of the Tuman river. The dynasty of the Chagatai Khans collapsed in 1572 with the division of the country among rival factions; soon after, two powerful Khoja factions, the White and Black Mountaineers (Ak Taghliq or Afaqi, and Kara Taghliq or Ishaqi), arose whose differences and war-making gestures, with the intermittent episode of the Oirats of Dzungaria, make up much of recorded history in Kashgar until 1759. The Dzungar Khanate conquered Kashgar and set up the Khoja as their puppet rulers. QING CONQUEST The Qing dynasty defeated the Dzungar Khanate during the Ten Great Campaigns and took control of Kashgar in 1759. The conquerors consolidated their authority by settling other ethnics emigrants in the vicinity of a Manchu garrison. Rumours flew around Central Asia that the Qing planned to launch expeditions towards Transoxiana and Samarkand, the chiefs of which sought assistance from the Afghan king Ahmed Shah Abdali. The alleged expedition never happened so Ahmad Shah withdrew his forces from Kokand. He also dispatched an ambassador to Beijing to discuss the situation of the Afaqi Khojas, but the representative was not well received, and Ahmed Shah was too busy fighting off the Sikhs to attempt to enforce his demands through arms. The Qing continued to hold Kashgar with occasional interruptions during the Afaqi Khoja revolts. One of the most serious of these occurred in 1827, when the city was taken by Jahanghir Khoja; Chang-lung, however, the Qing general of Ili, regained possession of Kashgar and the other rebellious cities in 1828. The Kokand Khanate raided Kashgar several times. A revolt in 1829 under Mahommed Ali Khan and Yusuf, brother of Jahanghir resulted in the concession of several important trade privileges to the Muslims of the district of Altishahr (the "six cities"), as it was then called. The area enjoyed relative calm until 1846 under the rule of Zahir-ud-din, the local Uyghur governor, but in that year a new Khoja revolt under Kath Tora led to his accession as the authoritarian ruler of the city. However, his reign was brief—at the end of seventy-five days, on the approach of the Chinese, he fled back to Khokand amid the jeers of the inhabitants. The last of the Khoja revolts (1857) was of about equal duration, and took place under Wali-Khan, who murdered the well-known traveler Adolf Schlagintweit. 1862 CHINESE HUI REVOLT The great Dungan revolt (1862–1877) involved insurrection among various Muslim ethnic groups. It broke out in 1862 in Gansu then spread rapidly to Dzungaria and through the line of towns in the Tarim Basin. Dungan troops based in Yarkand rose and in August 1864 massacred some seven thousand Chinese and their Manchu commander. The inhabitants of Kashgar, rising in their turn against their masters, invoked the aid of Sadik Beg, a Kyrgyz chief, who was reinforced by Buzurg Khan, the heir of Jahanghir Khoja, and his general Yakub Beg. The latter men were dispatched at Sadik’s request by the ruler of Khokand to raise what troops they could to aid his Muslim friends in Kashgar. Sadik Beg soon repented of having asked for a Khoja, and eventually marched against Kashgar, which by this time had succumbed to Buzurg Khan and Yakub Beg, but was defeated and driven back to Khokand. Buzurg Khan delivered himself up to indolence and debauchery, but Yakub Beg, with singular energy and perseverance, made himself master of Yangi Shahr, Yangi-Hissar, Yarkand and other towns, and eventually became sole master of the country, Buzurg Khan proving himself totally unfit for the post of ruler. With the overthrow of Chinese rule in 1865 by Yakub Beg (1820–1877), the manufacturing industries of Kashgar are supposed to have declined. Yaqub Beg entered into relations and signed treaties with the Russian Empire and the British Empire, but when he tried to get their support against China, he failed. Kashgar and the other cities of the Tarim Basin remained under Yakub Beg’s rule until May 1877, when he died at Korla. Thereafter Kashgaria was reconquered by the forces of the Qing general Zuo Zongtang during the Qing reconquest of Xinjiang. QING RULE There were eras in Xinjiang's history where intermarriage was common, "laxity" which set upon Uyghur women led them to marry Chinese men and not wear the veil in the period after Yaqub Beg's rule ended, it is also believed by Uyghurs that some Uyghurs have Han Chinese ancestry from historical intermarriage, such as those living in Turpan. Even though Muslim women are forbidden to marry non-Muslims in Islamic law, from 1880-1949 it was frequently violated in Xinjiang since Chinese men married Muslim Turki (Uyghur) women, a reason suggested by foriengers that it was due to the women being poor, while the Turki women who married Chinese were labelled as whores by the Turki community, these marriages were illegitimate according to Islamic law but the women obtained benefits from marrying Chinese men since the Chinese defended them from Islamic authorities so the women were not subjected to the tax on prostitution and were able to save their income for themselves. Chinese men gave their Turki wives privileges which Turki men's wives did not have, since the wives of Chinese did not have to wear a veil and a Chinese man in Kashgar once beat a mullah who tried to force his Turki Kashgari wife to veil. The Turki women also benefited in that they were not subjected to any legal binding to their Chinese husbands so they could make their Chinese husbands provide them with as much their money as she wanted for her relatives and herself since otherwise the women could just leave, and the property of Chinese men was left to their Turki wives after they died. Turki women considered Turki men to be inferior husbands to Chinese and Hindus. Because they were viewed as "impure", Islamic cemeteries banned the Turki wives of Chinese men from being buried within them, the Turki women got around this problem by giving shrines donations and buying a grave in other towns. Besides Chinese men, other men such as Hindus, Armenians, Jews, Russians, and Badakhshanis intermarried with local Turki women. The local society accepted the Turki women and Chinese men's mixed offspring as their own people despite the marriages being in violation of Islamic law. Turki women also conducted temporary marriages with Chinese men such as Chinese soldiers temporarily stationed around them as soldiers for tours of duty, after which the Chinese men returned to their own cities, with the Chinese men selling their mixed daughters with the Turki women to his comrades, taking their sons with them if they could afford it but leaving them if they couldn't, and selling their temporary Turki wife to a comrade or leaving her behind. An anti-Russian uproar broke out when Russian customs officials, 3 Cossacks and a Russian courier invited local Turki (Uyghur) prostitutes to a party in January 1902 in Kashgar, this caused a massive brawl by the inflamed local Turki Muslim populace against the Russians on the pretense of protecting Muslim women because there was anti-Russian sentiment being built up, even though morality was not strict in Kashgar, the local Turki Muslims violently clashed with the Russians before they were dispersed by guards, the Chinese sought to end to tensions to prevent the Russians from building up a pretext to invade. After the riot, the Russians sent troops to Sarikol in Tashkurghan and demanded that the Sarikol postal services be placed under Russian supervision, the locals of Sarikol believed that the Russians would seize the entire district from the Chinese and send more soldiers even after the Russians tried to negotiate with the Begs of Sarikol and sway them to their side, they failed since the Sarikoli officials and authorities demanded in a petition to the Amban of Yarkand that they be evacuated to Yarkand to avoid being harassed by the Russians and objected to the Russian presence in Sarikol, the Sarikolis did not believe the Russian claim that they would leave them alone and only involved themselves in the mail service. Many of the young Kashgari women were most attractive in appearance, and some of the little girls quite lovely, their plaits of long hair falling from under a jaunty little embroidered cap, their big dark eyes, flashing teeth and piquant olive faces reminding me of Italian or Spanish children. One most beautiful boy stands out in my memory. He was clad in a new shirt and trousers of flowered pink, his crimson velvet cap embroidered with gold, and as he smiled and salaamed to us I thought he looked like a fairy prince. The women wear their hair in two or five plaits much thickened and lengthened by the addition of yak's hair, but the children in several tiny plaits. The peasants are fairly well off, as the soil is rich, the abundant water-supply free, and the taxation comparatively light. It was always interesting to meet them taking their live stock into market. Flocks of sheep with tiny lambs, black and white, pattered along the dusty road; here a goat followed its master like a dog, trotting behind the diminutive ass which the farmer bestrode; or boys, clad in the whity-brown native cloth, shouted incessantly at donkeys almost invisible under enormous loads of forage, or carried fowls and ducks in bunches head downwards, a sight that always made me long to come to the rescue of the luckless birds. It was pleasant to see the women riding alone on horseback, managing their mounts to perfection. They formed a sharp contrast to their Persian sisters, who either sit behind their husbands or have their steeds led by the bridle; and instead of keeping silence in public, as is the rule for the shrouded women of Iran, these farmers' wives chaffered and haggled with the men in the bazar outside the city, transacting business with their veils thrown back. Certainly the mullas do their best to keep the fair sex in their place, and are in the habit of beating those who show their faces in the Great Bazar. But I was told that poetic justice had lately been meted out to one of these upholders of the law of Islam, for by mistake he chastised a Kashgari woman married to a Chinaman, whereupon the irate husband set upon him with a big stick and castigated him soundly. That a Muslim should take in marriage one of alien faith is not objected to; it is rather deemed a meritorious act thus to bring an unbeliever to the true religion. The Muslim woman, on the other hand, must not be given in marriage to a non-Muslim; such a union is regarded as the most heinous of sins. In this matter, however, compromises are sometimes made with heaven: the marriage of a Turki princess with the emperor Ch'ien-lung has already been referred to; and, when the present writer passed through Minjol (a day's journey west of Kashgar) in 1902, a Chinese with a Turki wife (? concubine) was presented to him. FIRST EAST TURKESTAN REPUBLIC Kashgar was the scene of continual battles from 1933 to 1934. Ma Shaowu, a Chinese Muslim, was the Tao-yin of Kashgar, and he fought against Uyghur rebels. He was joined by another Chinese Muslim general, Ma Zhancang. BATTLE OF KASHGAR (1933) Uighur and Kirghiz forces, led by the Bughra brothers and Tawfiq Bay, attempted to take the New City of Kashgar from Chinese Muslim troops under General Ma Zhancang. They were defeated. Tawfiq Bey, a Syrian Arab traveler, who held the title Sayyid (descendent of prophet Muhammed) and arrived at Kashgar on August 26, 1933, was shot in the stomach by the Chinese Muslim troops in September. Previously Ma Zhancang arranged to have the Uighur leader Timur Beg killed and beheaded on August 9, 1933, displaying his head outside of Id Kah Mosque. Han chinese troops commanded by Brigadier Yang were absorbed into Ma Zhancang's army. A number of Han chinese officers were spotted wearing the green uniforms of Ma Zhancang's unit of the 36th division, presumably they had converted to Islam. BATTLE OF KASHGAR (1934) The 36th division General Ma Fuyuan led a Chinese Muslim army to storm Kashgar on February 6, 1934, attacking the Uighur and Kirghiz rebels of the First East Turkestan Republic. He freed another 36th division general, Ma Zhancang, who was trapped with his Chinese Muslim and Han Chinese troops in Kashgar New City by the Uighurs and Kirghiz since May 22, 1933. In January, 1934, Ma Zhancang's Chinese Muslim troops repulsed six Uighur attacks, launched by Khoja Niyaz, who arrived at the city on January 13, 1934, inflicting massive casualties on the Uighur forces. From 2,000 to 8,000 Uighur civilians in Kashgar Old City were massacred by Tungans in February, 1934, in revenge for the Kizil massacre, after retreating of Uighur forces from the city to Yengi Hisar. The Chinese Muslim and 36th division Chief General Ma Zhongying, who arrived at Kashgar on April 7, 1934, gave a speech at Id Kah Mosque in April, reminding the Uighurs to be loyal to the Republic of China government at Nanjing. Several British citizens at the British consulate were killed or wounded by the 36th division on March 16, 1934. PEOPLE´S REPUBLIC OF CHINA Kashgar was incorporated into the People's Republic of China in 1949. During the Cultural Revolution, one of the largest statues of Mao in China was built in Kashgar, near People's Square. In 1986, the Chinese government designated Kashgar a "city of historical and cultural significance". Kashgar and surrounding regions have been the site of Uyghur unrest since the 1990s. In 2008, two Uyghur men carried out a vehicular, IED and knife attack against police officers. In 2009, development of Kashgar's old town accelerated after the revelations of the deadly role of faulty architecture during the 2008 Sichuan earthquake. Many of the old houses in the old town were built without regulation, and as a result, officials found them to be overcrowded and non-compliant with fire and earthquake codes. When the plan started, 42% of the city's residents lived in the old town. With compensation, residents of faulty buildings are being counseled to move to newer, safer buildings that will replace the historic structures in the $448 million plan, including high-rise apartments, plazas, and reproductions of ancient Islamic architecture. The European Parliament issued a resolution in 2011 calling for "culture-sensitive methods of renovation." The International Scientific Committee on Earthen Architectural Heritage (ISCEAH) has expressed concern over the demolition and reconstruction of historic buildings. ISCEAH has, additionally, urged the implementation of techniques utilized elsewhere in the world to address earthquake vulnerability. Following the July 2009 Urumqi riots, the government focused on local economic development in an attempt to ameliorate ethnic tensions in the greater Xinjiang region. Kashgar was made into a Special Economic Zone in 2010, the first such zone in China's far west. In 2011, a spate of violence over two days killed dozens of people. By May 2012 two-thirds of the old city had been demolished, fulfilling "political as well as economic goals." In July 2014 the Imam of the Id Kah Mosque, Juma Tayir, was assassinated in Kashgar. CLIMATE Kashgar features a desert climate (Köppen BWk) with hot summers and cold winters, with large temperature differences between those two seasons: The monthly 24-hour average temperature ranges from −5.3 °C in January to 25.6 °C in July, while the annual mean is 11.84 °C. Spring is long and arrives quickly, while fall is somewhat brief in comparison. Kashgar is one of the driest cities on the planet, averaging only 64 millimetres of precipitation per year. The city’s wettest month, July, only sees on average 9.1 millimetres of rain. Because of the extremely arid conditions, snowfall is rare, despite the cold winters. Records have been as low as −24.4 °C in January and up to 40.1 °C in July. The frost-free period averages 215 days. With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 50% in March to 70% in September, the city receives 2,726 hours of bright sunshine annually. DEMOGRAPHICS Kashgar is predominately peopled by Muslim Uyghurs. Compared to Ürümqi, Xinjiang's capital and largest city, Kashgar is less industrial and has significantly fewer Han Chinese residents. ECONOMICS AND SOCIETY The city has a very important Sunday market. Thousands of farmers from the surrounding fertile lands come into the city to sell a wide variety of fruit and vegetables. Kashgar’s livestock market is also very lively. Silk and carpets made in Hotan are sold at bazaars, as well as local crafts, such as copper teapots and wooden jewellery boxes. In order to boost the economy in Kashgar region, the government classified the area as the sixth Special Economic Zone of China in May 2010. Mahmud al-Kashgari (Turkish: Kâşgarlı Mahmud) (Mahmut from Kashgar) wrote the first Turkic–Arabic Exemplary Dictionary called Divan-ı Lugat-it Türk[citation needed] The movie The Kite Runner was filmed in Kashgar. Kashgar and the surrounding countryside stood in for Kabul and Afghanistan, since filming in Afghanistan was not possible due to safety and security reasons. SIGHTS Kashgar's Old City has been called "the best-preserved example of a traditional Islamic city to be found anywhere in Central Asia". It is estimated to attract more than one million tourists annually. - Id Kah Mosque, the largest mosque in China, is located in the heart of the city. - People's Park, the main public park in central Kashgar. - An 18 m high statue of Mao Zedong in Kashgar is one of the few large-scale statues of Mao remaining in China. - The tomb of Afaq Khoja in Kashgar is considered the holiest Muslim site in Xinjiang. Built in the 17th century, the tiled mausoleum 5 km northeast of the city centre also contains the tombs of five generations of his family. Abakh was a powerful ruler, controlling Khotan, Yarkand, Korla, Kucha and Aksu as well as Kashgar. Among some Uyghur Muslims, he was considered a great Saint (Aulia). - Sunday Market in Kashgar is renowned as the biggest market in central Asia; a pivotal trading point along the Silk Road where goods have been traded for more than 2,000 years. The market is open every day but Sunday is the largest. TRANSPORTATION AIR Kashgar Airport serves mainly domestic flights, the majority of them from Urumqi. The only scheduled international flights are passenger and cargo services with Pakistan's capital Islamabad. RAIL Kashgar has the westernmost railway station in China. It is connected to the rest of China's rail network via the Southern Xinjiang Railway, which was built in December 1999. Kashgar–Hotan Railway opened for passenger traffic in June 2011, and connected Kashgar with cities in the southern Tarim Basin including Shache (Yarkand), Yecheng (Kargilik) and Hotan. Travel time to Urumqi from Kashgar is approximately 25 hours, while travel time to Hotan is approximately ten hours. The investigation work of a further extension of the railway line to Pakistan has begun. In November 2009, Pakistan and China agreed to set up a joint venture to do a feasibility study of the proposed rail link via the Khunjerab Pass. Proposals for a rail connection to Osh in Kyrgyzstan have also been discussed at various levels since at least 1996. In 2012, a standard gauge railway from Kashgar via Tajikistan and Afghanistan to Iran and beyond has been proposed. ROAD The Karakorum highway (KKH) links Islamabad, Pakistan with Kashgar over the Khunjerab Pass. The China–Pakistan Economic Corridor is a multibillion-dollar project was that will upgrade transport links between China and Pakistan, including the upgrades to the Karakorum highway. Bus routes exist for passenger travel south into Pakistan. Kyrgyzstan is also accessible from Kashgar, via the Torugart Pass and Irkeshtam Pass; as of summer 2007, daily bus service connects Kashgar with Bishkek’s Western Bus Terminal. Kashgar is also located on China National Highways G314 (which runs to Khunjerab Pass on the Sino−Pakistani border, and, in the opposite direction, towards Ürümqi), and G315, which runs to Xining, Qinghai from Kashgar. WIKIPEDIA

Title: Florists' review [microform] Identifier: 5205536_43_2 Year: 1912 (1910s) Authors: Subjects: Floriculture Publisher: Chicago : Florists' Pub. Co Contributing Library: University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Digitizing Sponsor: University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign View Book Page: Book Viewer About This Book: Catalog Entry View All Images: All Images From Book Click here to view book online to see this illustration in context in a browseable online version of this book. Text Appearing Before Image: 2 The Florists' Review Fbbbcabt 13, 1919. ■^r index to the AdveTliseinenls A. Advance Co 07 Alfred Lozier Kosery (14 Allen, J. K 67 Alpha Flo. Co r)4-5« Amerioan Hvilb Co.. 4 Ameriean F. Shop.. 60 Ajneriean Forestr.v.. ?...86-87 American Gr'nhse Mfg. Co Ill Amerioan Window- Glass 99 Amling Co 25 Anderson, S. A -Vi Angermueller, »J. 11. 38 Aphlne Mfg. Co 97 Archias Floral Co.. ")•) Armacost & Co SI Arnold, A. A 37 Art Floral Co tW Artindale & Son .".() Aschmann. (J Sfl Aschniaiin Bros. .. . S!) Asman •"> Atchison Socl Flowershop. The.... 63 Foerster Co 29 Foley Mfg. Co 97 Forber, G. F 64 Ford, M. C 67 Ford, Wm. P 67 Ford & Kendig Co. . 96 Fox & Son 51 Franklin Park Flo. . .59 Eraser Nur. Co 60 Frauenfelder. C. ... 57 Freeman. Mrs. J. It. .59 Frey & Frey 62 Frey, C. H 8-62 Friedman, O. J 57 Fritz-Taber 35 Frost, Chas 75 Furrow & Co 60 Futterman Bp)s.... 66 G. Gage Co.. H. N 82 Galvin, Inc., Thos.. 55 Gammage & Sons... 49 Gardiner Flo. Co... 64 Garland Co 112 (iary Floral Co 56 Gasser Co ,59 Gebhardt & Co 79 Geltz. F. (J .59 Gen.v Bnis 54 George. Inc 61 Gibbs Bros 55 Giblin & Co 95 Gimbels 51 Gleave's Fir. Shop. . 62 Gloeckiier. Wm. ... 52 Gloekler Co 79 Gnatt Co.. Ove I Goetz Sons .50 Goldstein. 1 67 Gove. Mrs. C. C 55 Graham & Son 59 Grakelow. C. H 58 Grandfather Ever- green 43 Grand Rapids Fl. Co. .50 Orandy 61 Graves Co 87 Green. Edw 60 Green Goods Supply. 43 Griffith, .Tames F. . . 96 Grohe, Fred 84 Gpohman .50 Grossberg-Tyler-Fin- nerman 65 Groves Floral Co... .50 Grulich & Sons 52 Gnde Bros. Co 61 Gullett & Sons 88 Gunterberg. M. C. 31 Gumey Gmhse. Co.. 64 Guthrie-Lorenz Co.. 64 H. Habermehl's Sons.. 58 Haefeli Floral Co... .54 Hail Association ...III Halbrooks, P. M .59 Hall & Robinson 49 Hammond Co 61 Harkett's Flo. Nur. 64 Harnden Seed Co. . . 73 Harris Bros 5S Hart, Geo. B 66 Hart, Inc., H .53 Hart & Vick 7.5 76 Hasselmann. Wm... 50 Hastings. Frank R. 58 Haven Seed Co 69 Hayden-Watson ... 63 Hayes, James .50 Hayman Grnhsc. Co. (>1 Heacock Co.. Jos... SS Hecock Floral Co. . . 59 Heelas Flower Store 52 HeinI & Son, J. G.. .56 Heinl & Sons, J .57 Heiser's ,59 Heller & Co 73 Hembreiker & Cole. .5() Hencle. Miles S .52 Henderson, Lewis... 62 Henderson & C0...I-II Henry Co 79 Herrick, A. D 52 Herron, D. R .53 Hess & Swoboda 62 Hews & Co 93 Highland Park Ghs. 57 Hill Co., E. G I Hill Co., J. H 88 Hill Nursery Co 87 Hinde & Dauch 36 Hitchings & Co 97 Hotrber Bros 65 Hollywood Gardens. 63 Holm & Olson 64 Holton & Hunkel. .. 66 Honaker the Florist .54 Homaday (Jreenhse. 60 Hosp, A. M 63 Houser. M. H .58 Howard Rose Co. . . . S4 Howard & Smith... 62 Hubbard. C. E 5(» Huddart Floral Co., 60 Huesman. H. C 58 Humboldt Evergreen 81' HurfT, E. F 69 Hurst & Son 70 I. Ickes-Braun 97 Idle Hour Floral Co. 60 Idlewild Grnhses... .54 Illinois .Malleable. . . 95 Ingalls ,-,7 Ionia Pottery Co.... 93 Irwin, Roman J. .. . I J. Jackson & Perkins.. 86 Jacobs & Sons Ill Jahn, H. H ,53 Janssen Floral Co.. ,56 Johnson Basket .... 31 Johnson, .1. L 57 .Tohnston, Mary .... 61 .Tohnston Bros. .... 55 .Tohnston & Co 55 .Toilet Floral Co 57 Jones, Perc.y i>(i Joseph, B. M 63 Joy Floral Co 54 K. Kahler Pottery Co., 93 Kanawha Mfg. Co.. 95 Kasting Co I Keller Co., John A. 54 Keller Sons, J. B... 52 Keller Pottery Co.. 93 Kellogg Floral Co.. 54 Kelway & Son 70 Kemble, I. 0 64 Kennedy & Sons 52 Kennlcott Bros 30 Kent Bros 59 Kerr, R. 0 60 Kervan Co 67 Kessler, Wm 67 Kimberlln Seed Co.. 70 King Florist, The.. 49 Knoble Bros 59 KnuU Floral Co 61 Kooyman Co 82 Kottmiller, A 53 Kramer & Son 64 Kring, B. N 96 Kroeschell Bros. ... 94 Kruchten, John 65 Kuehn, C. A 38 Kuhl, Geo. A 64-90 Kusik & Co 66 L, La Crosse Floral Co. 51 L. A. Floral Co 80 I.jiKer & Hurrell 93 Lakeviiinge, H. F. A 55 Langley, R. E 60 Larmon, L. Ij 62 La Salle Co. Nurs. . 86 Laver, J. V .58 Lecakes 67 Lee. F. & S 43 Leighton Floral Co. .50 Leistner. Oscar .... 79 Lemon & Co .56 T>>mon Oil Cx) 97 Leonard Seed Co 69 Liggit, C. TT 89 Lilley. C. Baden 82 Lindley Florist Box. 36 Ix)hr, Wm. S .56 London Flo. Shop. . 58 liOrd's Flower Room .50 Ix)s Robles Nursery. 84 T/Ouise Flower Shop. ■ 61 Lovett, J. T 87 I>owe's Flo. Shop... 63 Lubliner. Wm 51 Ludwig Flo. Co 58 Ludwig, E. C, Co. . 58 M. MtCallum Co 41 McCarron. Miss .... 61 McCoy. L. W 63 McCray Refrigerator 92 McFarlands 59 McGee. Walter S.. . 97 McCMll & Co 69 McGrath & Ijinghaus 58 McHutchison & Co. 86 McKellar. C. W .57 McKenna. Ltd 49 Malandre Bros 53 Mangel. John 56 Marcell Fl. Shop 62 Massmann 52 Matthews. W. G... .59 Matthewson. J. E. . 5] May. Harry 0 52 Mazey. E. H 64 Meconi. Paul 6'7 Meehan. Chas. E. . . 33 Meier-Schroeder Co. 51 Metairie Ridge Nur. 60 Metropolitan Mate- rial Co 99 Metz & Bateman.. . .59 Meyer, Adolph 53 Miami Floral Co... 61 Mirhfll Co., H. P. . 78 Michigan Bilb Farm 10 Michigan Cut Fir.40-44 Miller. A. L 88 Miller Floral Co 60 Miller the Florist.. . .54 Mills 61 Minge Floral Co 60 Mirring. A 56 Missouri Pottery Co. 93 Missouri Potterv & Supply Co 93 Mitchell & Quentln. .54 Modern Mfg. Co.... 93 Moninger Co IV Morehead Mfg. Co.. 93 Morse & Beals 55 Mosmiller. Frank... 61 Mountain View Flo. 82 Muhly, Geo. J 65 Mnir. John T 57 Munk Floral Co .59 Munson, H 95 Murata & Co 81 Murphy Co 41 Murray, Peter 55 Murray, R. L 63 Murray, Samuel.... 54 Murray & Co 54 N. National Cash Reg- ister ('o 9. National Florists' Board of Trade... 67 Navlet. A 63 Navlet Co 63 Neidinger, J. G 33 Netts Floral Co .59 Neubeck, L. H 52 Newell, A 54 New York Florists' Supply Co 67 Nicotine Mfg. Co. .. 96 Nielsen, Knud 42-43 Niessen Co,, T>eo.... ,32 Noll & Co., T. J 34 Nordwall. E. E 64 Norton, W. F 63 0. Obertin. P. N .51 Okmulgee Window Glass Co 99 Olsen, Chr 70 Olsson Co., H. L 82 Ostertag Bn)s 56 Otis, ('has. D 60 Owosso Floral Co... 50 P, P.-icific Nurseries... S'2 Paducah Pottery 93 Palmer & Son 52 Park Floral Co....52-62 I'arker's . 60 Peacock Co.. E. R. . 68 Pedrick & Son 70 Pelicano-Rossi 63 P^old, P. F .50 Peninsula Nursery.. 84 Penn .55 Pennock Co .33 Peters, W. E 55 Peters & Reed 93 Peterson Nursery... 87 Pfaff & Kendall 96 Phlla. Cut Flower.. 32 Philadelphia Second Hand Pipe Supply 96 Phila. Wholesale Florists' Ex 33 Philips Bros 52 Pierce Co., F. O 98 Pierson, A. N 89 Pierson Co.. F. R. . 90 Pikes Peak Flo. Co. 62 Pillsbury. I. L. ..57-112 Pittsburgh Cut Flower 44 Pittsburgh Glass ... 99 Plath, H 84 Podesta & Baldocchi 63 Poehlmann Bros.... 7 Pollworth Co. 1-41-67-93 Polykranas, G. J... 66' Potter Floral Co 60 Pulverized Manure..Ill Pumell, W. Z 42 Putnam, B. J 79 Pyfer & Co.. A. T.. 30 Q. Queen City Gmhse.. 64 Quality Brands Co.. II Quality Seed Store.. 72 B. Raedlein Basket Co. 79 Ranim's Flo. Shop.. 53 Ramsburg, G. S. . .. 73-75-93 Randa'li's Flo.' Shop. 55 Randall Co 29-79 Randolph & Mc- Clements 58 Rasch & Brimner... 96 Rawson 52 Redondo Floral Co.. 62 Reed & Keller 67 Regan Ptg. House..112 Reid. Edw 33 Reimers Art Shop.. 63 Reimers & Son Co.. .54 Reinherg, Geo 65 Reinberg, P 6-88 Rennison Co 64 Rentschler Flo. Co., 51 Renter Co 90 Reynolds-Robinson.. 52 Rlbsam, Martin C. 52 Rice Bros 65 Rice, M., Co 12 Rice Seed Co 69 Ridenour, F. E 58 Riedel & Meyer 67 Note About Images Please note that these images are extracted from scanned page images that may have been digitally enhanced for readability - coloration and appearance of these illustrations may not perfectly resemble the original work.

Kashgar is an oasis city with an approximate population of 350,000. It is the westernmost city in China, located near the border with Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. Kashgar has a rich history of over 2,000 years and served as a trading post and strategically important city on the Silk Road between China, the Middle East, and Europe. Kashgar is part of the China–Pakistan Economic Corridor. Located historically at the convergence point of widely varying cultures and empires, Kashgar has been under the rule of the Chinese, Turkic, Mongol, and Tibetan empires. The city has also been the site of an extraordinary number of battles between various groups of people on the steppes. Now administered as a county-level unit of the People's Republic of China, Kashgar is the administrative centre of its eponymous prefecture in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region which has an area of 162,000 square kilometres and a population of approximately 3.5 million. The city's urban area covers 15 km2, though its administrative area extends over 555 km2. NAME The modern Chinese name is 喀什 (Kāshí), a shortened form of the longer and less-frequently used (simplified Chinese: 喀什噶尔; traditional Chinese: 喀什噶爾; pinyin: Kāshígé’ěr; Uyghur: قەشقەر‎). Ptolemy (AD 90-168), in his Geography, Chapter 15.3A, refers to Kashgar as “Kasi”. Its western and probably indigenous name is the Kāš ("rock"), to which the East Iranian -γar ("mountain"); cf. Pashto and Middle Persian gar/ġar, from Old Persian/Pahlavi girīwa ("hill; ridge (of a mountain)") was attached. Alternative historical Romanizations for "Kashgar" include Cascar and Cashgar. Non-native names for the city, such as the old Chinese name Shule 疏勒 and Tibetan Śu-lig may have originated as an attempts to transcribe the Sanskrit name for Kashgar, Śrīkrīrāti ("fortunate hospitality") Variant transcriptions of the official Uyghur: يېڭىشەھەر‎ include: K̂äxk̂är or Kaxgar, as well as Jangi-schahr, Kashgar Yangi Shahr, K’o-shih-ka-erh, K’o-shih-ka-erh-hsin-ch’eng, Ko-shih-ka-erh-hui-ch’eng, K’o-shih-ko-erh-hsin-ch’eng, New Kashgar, Sheleh, Shuleh, Shulen, Shu-lo, Su-lo, Su-lo-chen, Su-lo-hsien, Yangi-shaar, Yangi-shahr, Yangishar, Yéngisheher, Yengixəh̨ər and Еңишәһәр. HISTORY HAN DYNASTY The earliest mention of Kashgar occurs when a Chinese Han dynasty envoy traveled the Northern Silk Road to explore lands to the west. Another early mention of Kashgar is during the Former Han (also known as the Western Han dynasty), when in 76 BC the Chinese conquered the Xiongnu, Yutian (Khotan), Sulei (Kashgar), and a group of states in the Tarim basin almost up to the foot of the Tian Shan range. Ptolemy speaks of Scythia beyond the Imaus, which is in a “Kasia Regio”, probably exhibiting the name from which Kashgar and Kashgaria (often applied to the district) are formed. The country’s people practised Zoroastrianism and Buddhism before the coming of Islam. In the Book of Han, which covers the period between 125 BC and 23 AD, it is recorded that there were 1,510 households, 18,647 people and 2,000 persons able to bear arms. By the time covered by the Book of the Later Han (roughly 25 to 170 AD), it had grown to 21,000 households and had 3,000 men able to bear arms. The Book of the Later Han provides a wealth of detail on developments in the region: "In the period of Emperor Wu [140-87 BC], the Western Regions1 were under the control of the Interior [China]. They numbered thirty-six kingdoms. The Imperial Government established a Colonel [in charge of] Envoys there to direct and protect these countries. Emperor Xuan [73-49 BC] changed this title [in 59 BC] to Protector-General. Emperor Yuan [40-33 BC] installed two Wuji Colonels to take charge of the agricultural garrisons on the frontiers of the king of Nearer Jushi [Turpan]. During the time of Emperor Ai [6 BC-AD 1] and Emperor Ping [AD 1-5], the principalities of the Western Regions split up and formed fifty-five kingdoms. Wang Mang, after he usurped the Throne [in AD 9], demoted and changed their kings and marquises. Following this, the Western Regions became resentful, and rebelled. They, therefore, broke off all relations with the Interior [China] and, all together, submitted to the Xiongnu again. The Xiongnu collected oppressively heavy taxes and the kingdoms were not able to support their demands. In the middle of the Jianwu period [AD 25-56], they each [Shanshan and Yarkand in 38, and 18 kingdoms in 45], sent envoys to ask if they could submit to the Interior [China], and to express their desire for a Protector-General. Emperor Guangwu, decided that because the Empire was not yet settled [after a long period of civil war], he had no time for outside affairs, and [therefore] finally refused his consent [in AD 45]. In the meantime, the Xiongnu became weaker. The king of Suoju [Yarkand], named Xian, wiped out several kingdoms. After Xian’s death [c. AD 62], they began to attack and fight each other. Xiao Yuan [Tura], Jingjue [Cadota], Ronglu [Niya], and Qiemo [Cherchen] were annexed by Shanshan [the Lop Nur region]. Qule [south of Keriya] and Pishan [modern Pishan or Guma] were conquered and fully occupied by Yutian [Khotan]. Yuli [Fukang], Danhuan, Guhu [Dawan Cheng], and Wutanzili were destroyed by Jushi [Turpan and Jimasa]. Later these kingdoms were re-established. During the Yongping period [AD 58-75], the Northern Xiongnu forced several countries to help them plunder the commanderies and districts of Hexi. The gates of the towns stayed shut in broad daylight." And, more particularly in reference to Kashgar itself, is the following record: "In the sixteenth Yongping year of Emperor Ming 73, Jian, the king of Qiuci (Kucha), attacked and killed Cheng, the king of Shule (Kashgar). Then he appointed the Qiuci (Kucha) Marquis of the Left, Douti, King of Shule (Kashgar). ‹See TfD› In winter 73, the Han sent the Major Ban Chao who captured and bound Douti. He appointed Zhong, the son of the elder brother of Cheng, to be king of Shule (Kashgar). Zhong later rebelled. (Ban) Chao attacked and beheaded him." THE KUSHANS The Book of the Later Han also gives the only extant historical record of Yuezhi or Kushan involvement in the Kashgar oasis: "During the Yuanchu period (114-120) in the reign of Emperor, the king of Shule (Kashgar), exiled his maternal uncle Chenpan to the Yuezhi (Kushans) for some offence. The king of the Yuezhi became very fond of him. Later, Anguo died without leaving a son. His mother directed the government of the kingdom. She agreed with the people of the country to put Yifu (lit. “posthumous child”), who was the son of a full younger brother of Chenpan on the throne as king of Shule (Kashgar). Chenpan heard of this and appealed to the Yuezhi (Kushan) king, saying: "Anguo had no son. His relative (Yifu) is weak. If one wants to put on the throne a member of (Anguo’s) mother’s family, I am Yifu’s paternal uncle, it is I who should be king." The Yuezhi (Kushans) then sent soldiers to escort him back to Shule (Kashgar). The people had previously respected and been fond of Chenpan. Besides, they dreaded the Yuezhi (Kushans). They immediately took the seal and ribbon from Yifu and went to Chenpan, and made him king. Yifu was given the title of Marquis of the town of Pangao [90 li, or 37 km, from Shule]. ‹See TfD› Then Suoju (Yarkand) continued to resist Yutian (Khotan), and put themselves under Shule (Kashgar). Thus Shule (Kashgar), became powerful and a rival to Qiuci (Kucha) and Yutian (Khotan)." However, it was not very long before the Chinese began to reassert their authority in the region: “In the second Yongjian year (127), during Emperor Shun’s reign, Chenpan sent an envoy to respectfully present offerings. The Emperor bestowed on Chenpan the title of Great Commandant-in-Chief for the Han. Chenxun, who was the son of his elder brother, was appointed Temporary Major of the Kingdom. ‹See TfD› In the fifth year (130), Chenpan sent his son to serve the Emperor and, along with envoys from Dayuan (Ferghana) and Suoju (Yarkand), brought tribute and offerings.” From an earlier part of the same text comes the following addition: “In the first Yangjia year (132), Xu You sent the king of Shule (Kashgar), Chenpan, who with 20,000 men, attacked and defeated Yutian (Khotan). He beheaded several hundred people, and released his soldiers to plunder freely. He replaced the king [of Jumi] by installing Chengguo from the family of [the previous king] Xing, and then he returned.”[38] Then the first passage continues: “In the second Yangjia year (133), Chenpan again made offerings (including) a lion and zebu cattle. ‹See TfD› Then, during Emperor Ling’s reign, in the first Jianning year, the king of Shule (Kashgar) and Commandant-in-Chief for the Han (i.e. presumably Chenpan), was shot while hunting by the youngest of his paternal uncles, Hede. Hede named himself king. ‹See TfD› In the third year (170), Meng Tuo, the Inspector of Liangzhou, sent the Provincial Officer Ren She, commanding five hundred soldiers from Dunhuang, with the Wuji Major Cao Kuan, and Chief Clerk of the Western Regions, Zhang Yan, brought troops from Yanqi (Karashahr), Qiuci (Kucha), and the Nearer and Further States of Jushi (Turpan and Jimasa), altogether numbering more than 30,000, to punish Shule (Kashgar). They attacked the town of Zhenzhong [Arach − near Maralbashi] but, having stayed for more than forty days without being able to subdue it, they withdrew. Following this, the kings of Shule (Kashgar) killed one another repeatedly while the Imperial Government was unable to prevent it.” THREE KINGDOMS TO THE SUI These centuries are marked by a general silence in sources on Kashgar and the Tarim Basin. The Weilüe, composed in the second third of the 3rd century, mentions a number of states as dependencies of Kashgar: the kingdom of Zhenzhong (Arach?), the kingdom of Suoju (Yarkand), the kingdom of Jieshi, the kingdom of Qusha, the kingdom of Xiye (Khargalik), the kingdom of Yinai (Tashkurghan), the kingdom of Manli (modern Karasul), the kingdom of Yire (Mazar − also known as Tágh Nák and Tokanak), the kingdom of Yuling, the kingdom of Juandu (‘Tax Control’ − near modern Irkeshtam), the kingdom of Xiuxiu (‘Excellent Rest Stop’ − near Karakavak), and the kingdom of Qin. However, much of the information on the Western Regions contained in the Weilüe seems to have ended roughly about (170), near the end of Han power. So, we can’t be sure that this is a reference to the state of affairs during the Cao Wei (220-265), or whether it refers to the situation before the civil war during the Later Han when China lost touch with most foreign countries and came to be divided into three separate kingdoms. Chapter 30 of the Records of the Three Kingdoms says that after the beginning of the Wei Dynasty (220) the states of the Western Regions did not arrive as before, except for the larger ones such as Kucha, Khotan, Kangju, Wusun, Kashgar, Yuezhi, Shanshan and Turpan, who are said to have come to present tribute every year, as in Han times. In 270, four states from the Western Regions were said to have presented tribute: Karashahr, Turpan, Shanshan, and Kucha. Some wooden documents from Niya seem to indicate that contacts were also maintained with Kashgar and Khotan around this time. In 422, according to the Songshu, ch. 98, the king of Shanshan, Bilong, came to the court and "the thirty-six states in the Western Regions" all swore their allegiance and presented tribute. It must be assumed that these 36 states included Kashgar. The "Songji" of the Zizhi Tongjian records that in the 5th month of 435, nine states: Kucha, Kashgar, Wusun, Yueban, Tashkurghan, Shanshan, Karashahr, Turpan and Sute all came to the Wei court. In 439, according to the Weishu, ch. 4A, Shanshan, Kashgar and Karashahr sent envoys to present tribute. According to the Weishu, ch. 102, Chapter on the Western Regions, the kingdoms of Kucha, Kashgar, Wusun, Yueban, Tashkurghan, Shanshan, Karashahr, Turpan and Sute all began sending envoys to present tribute in the Taiyuan reign period (435-440). In 453 Kashgar sent envoys to present tribute (Weishu, ch. 5), and again in 455. An embassy sent during the reign of Wencheng Di (452-466) from the king of Kashgar presented a supposed sacred relic of the Buddha; a dress which was incombustible. In 507 Kashgar, is said to have sent envoys in both the 9th and 10th months (Weishu, ch. 8). In 512, Kashgar sent envoys in the 1st and 5th months. (Weishu, ch. 8). Early in the 6th century Kashgar is included among the many territories controlled by the Yeda or Hephthalite Huns, but their empire collapsed at the onslaught of the Western Turks between 563 and 567 who then probably gained control over Kashgar and most of the states in the Tarim Basin. TANG DYNASTY The founding of the Tang dynasty in 618 saw the beginning of a prolonged struggle between China and the Western Turks for control of the Tarim Basin. In 635, the Tang Annals reported an emissary from the king of Kashgar to the Tang capital. In 639 there was a second emissary bringing products of Kashgar as a token of submission to the Tang state. Buddhist scholar Xuanzang passed through Kashgar (which he referred to as Ka-sha) in 644 on his return journey from India to China. The Buddhist religion, then beginning to decay in India, was active in Kashgar. Xuanzang recorded that they flattened their babies heads, tattooed their bodies and had green eyes. He reported that Kashgar had abundant crops, fruits and flowers, wove fine woolen stuffs and rugs. Their writing system had been adapted from Indian script but their language was different from that of other countries. The inhabitants were sincere Buddhist adherents and there were some hundreds of monasteries with more than 10,000 followers, all members of the Sarvastivadin School. At around the same era, Nestorian Christians were establishing bishoprics at Herat, Merv and Samarkand, whence they subsequently proceeded to Kashgar, and finally to China proper itself. In 646, the Turkic Kagan asked for the hand of a Tang Chinese princess, and in return the Emperor promised Kucha, Khotan, Kashgar, Karashahr and Sarikol as a marriage gift, but this did not happen as planned. In a series of campaigns between 652 and 658, with the help of the Uyghurs, the Chinese finally defeated the Western Turk tribes and took control of all their domains, including the Tarim Basin kingdoms. Karakhoja was annexed in 640, Karashahr during campaigns in 644 and 648, and Kucha fell in 648. In 662 a rebellion broke out in the Western Regions and a Chinese army sent to control it was defeated by the Tibetans south of Kashgar. After another defeat of the Tang Chinese forces in 670, the Tibetans gained control of the whole region and completely subjugated Kashgar in 676-8 and retained possession of it until 692, when the Tang dynasty regained control of all their former territories, and retained it for the next fifty years. In 722 Kashgar sent 4,000 troops to assist the Chinese to force the "Tibetans out of "Little Bolu" or Gilgit. In 728, the king of Kashgar was awarded a brevet by the Chinese emperor. In 739, the Tangshu relates that the governor of the Chinese garrison in Kashgar, with the help of Ferghana, was interfering in the affairs of the Turgesh tribes as far as Talas. In 751 the Chinese were defeated by an Arab army in the Battle of Talas. The An Lushan Rebellion led to the decline of Tang influence in Central Asia due to the fact that the Tang dynasty was forced to withdraw its troops from the region to fight An Lushan. The Tibetans cut all communication between China and the West in 766. Soon after the Chinese pilgrim monk Wukong passed through Kashgar in 753. He again reached Kashgar on his return trip from India in 786 and mentions a Chinese deputy governor as well as the local king. BATTLES WITH ARAB CALIPHATE In 711, the Arabs invaded Kashgar, but did not hold the city for any length of time. Kashgar and Turkestan lent assistance to the reigning queen of Bukhara, to enable her to repel the Arabs. Although the Muslim religion from the very commencement sustained checks, it nevertheless made its weight felt upon the independent states of Turkestan to the north and east, and thus acquired a steadily growing influence. It was not, however, till the 10th century that Islam was established at Kashgar, under the Kara-Khanid Khanate. THE TURKIC RULE According to the 10th-century text, Hudud al-'alam, "the chiefs of Kashghar in the days of old were from the Qarluq, or from the Yaghma." The Karluks, Yaghmas and other tribes such as the Chigils formed the Karakhanids. The Karakhanid Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan converted to Islam in the 10th century and captured Kashgar. Kashgar was the capital of the Karakhanid state for a time but later the capital was moved to Balasaghun. During the latter part of the 10th century, the Muslim Karakhanids began a struggle against the Buddhist Kingdom of Khotan, and the Khotanese defeated the Karakhanids and captured Kashgar in 970. Chinese sources recorded the king of Khotan offering to send them a dancing elephant captured from Kashgar. Later in 1006, the Karakhanids of Kashgar under Yusuf Kadr Khan conquered Khotan. The Karakhanid Khanate however was beset with internal strife, and the khanate split into two, the Eastern and Western Karakhanid Khanates, with Kashgar falling within the domain of the Eastern Karakhanid state. In 1089, the Western Karakhanids fell under the control of the Seljuks, but the Eastern Karakhanids was for the most part independent. Both the Karakhanid states were defeated in the 12th century by the Kara-Khitans who captured Balasaghun, however Karakhanid rule continued in Kashgar under the suzerainty of the Kara-Khitans. The Kara-Khitan rulers followed a policy of religious tolerance, Islamic religious life continued uninterrupted and Kashgar was also a Nestorian metropolitan see. The last Karakhanid of Kashgar was killed in a revolt in 1211 by the city's notables. Kuchlug, a usurper of the throne of the Kara-Khitans, then attacked Kashgar which finally surrendered in 1214. THE MONGOLS The Kara-Khitai in their turn were swept away in 1219 by Genghis Khan. After his death, Kashgar came under the rule of the Chagatai Khans. Marco Polo visited the city, which he calls Cascar, about 1273-4 and recorded the presence of numerous Nestorian Christians, who had their own churches. Later In the 14th century, a Chagataid khan Tughluq Timur converted to Islam, and Islamic tradition began to reassert its ascendancy. In 1389−1390 Tamerlane ravaged Kashgar, Andijan and the intervening country. Kashgar endured a troubled time, and in 1514, on the invasion of the Khan Sultan Said, was destroyed by Mirza Ababakar, who with the aid of ten thousand men built a new fort with massive defences higher up on the banks of the Tuman river. The dynasty of the Chagatai Khans collapsed in 1572 with the division of the country among rival factions; soon after, two powerful Khoja factions, the White and Black Mountaineers (Ak Taghliq or Afaqi, and Kara Taghliq or Ishaqi), arose whose differences and war-making gestures, with the intermittent episode of the Oirats of Dzungaria, make up much of recorded history in Kashgar until 1759. The Dzungar Khanate conquered Kashgar and set up the Khoja as their puppet rulers. QING CONQUEST The Qing dynasty defeated the Dzungar Khanate during the Ten Great Campaigns and took control of Kashgar in 1759. The conquerors consolidated their authority by settling other ethnics emigrants in the vicinity of a Manchu garrison. Rumours flew around Central Asia that the Qing planned to launch expeditions towards Transoxiana and Samarkand, the chiefs of which sought assistance from the Afghan king Ahmed Shah Abdali. The alleged expedition never happened so Ahmad Shah withdrew his forces from Kokand. He also dispatched an ambassador to Beijing to discuss the situation of the Afaqi Khojas, but the representative was not well received, and Ahmed Shah was too busy fighting off the Sikhs to attempt to enforce his demands through arms. The Qing continued to hold Kashgar with occasional interruptions during the Afaqi Khoja revolts. One of the most serious of these occurred in 1827, when the city was taken by Jahanghir Khoja; Chang-lung, however, the Qing general of Ili, regained possession of Kashgar and the other rebellious cities in 1828. The Kokand Khanate raided Kashgar several times. A revolt in 1829 under Mahommed Ali Khan and Yusuf, brother of Jahanghir resulted in the concession of several important trade privileges to the Muslims of the district of Altishahr (the "six cities"), as it was then called. The area enjoyed relative calm until 1846 under the rule of Zahir-ud-din, the local Uyghur governor, but in that year a new Khoja revolt under Kath Tora led to his accession as the authoritarian ruler of the city. However, his reign was brief—at the end of seventy-five days, on the approach of the Chinese, he fled back to Khokand amid the jeers of the inhabitants. The last of the Khoja revolts (1857) was of about equal duration, and took place under Wali-Khan, who murdered the well-known traveler Adolf Schlagintweit. 1862 CHINESE HUI REVOLT The great Dungan revolt (1862–1877) involved insurrection among various Muslim ethnic groups. It broke out in 1862 in Gansu then spread rapidly to Dzungaria and through the line of towns in the Tarim Basin. Dungan troops based in Yarkand rose and in August 1864 massacred some seven thousand Chinese and their Manchu commander. The inhabitants of Kashgar, rising in their turn against their masters, invoked the aid of Sadik Beg, a Kyrgyz chief, who was reinforced by Buzurg Khan, the heir of Jahanghir Khoja, and his general Yakub Beg. The latter men were dispatched at Sadik’s request by the ruler of Khokand to raise what troops they could to aid his Muslim friends in Kashgar. Sadik Beg soon repented of having asked for a Khoja, and eventually marched against Kashgar, which by this time had succumbed to Buzurg Khan and Yakub Beg, but was defeated and driven back to Khokand. Buzurg Khan delivered himself up to indolence and debauchery, but Yakub Beg, with singular energy and perseverance, made himself master of Yangi Shahr, Yangi-Hissar, Yarkand and other towns, and eventually became sole master of the country, Buzurg Khan proving himself totally unfit for the post of ruler. With the overthrow of Chinese rule in 1865 by Yakub Beg (1820–1877), the manufacturing industries of Kashgar are supposed to have declined. Yaqub Beg entered into relations and signed treaties with the Russian Empire and the British Empire, but when he tried to get their support against China, he failed. Kashgar and the other cities of the Tarim Basin remained under Yakub Beg’s rule until May 1877, when he died at Korla. Thereafter Kashgaria was reconquered by the forces of the Qing general Zuo Zongtang during the Qing reconquest of Xinjiang. QING RULE There were eras in Xinjiang's history where intermarriage was common, "laxity" which set upon Uyghur women led them to marry Chinese men and not wear the veil in the period after Yaqub Beg's rule ended, it is also believed by Uyghurs that some Uyghurs have Han Chinese ancestry from historical intermarriage, such as those living in Turpan. Even though Muslim women are forbidden to marry non-Muslims in Islamic law, from 1880-1949 it was frequently violated in Xinjiang since Chinese men married Muslim Turki (Uyghur) women, a reason suggested by foriengers that it was due to the women being poor, while the Turki women who married Chinese were labelled as whores by the Turki community, these marriages were illegitimate according to Islamic law but the women obtained benefits from marrying Chinese men since the Chinese defended them from Islamic authorities so the women were not subjected to the tax on prostitution and were able to save their income for themselves. Chinese men gave their Turki wives privileges which Turki men's wives did not have, since the wives of Chinese did not have to wear a veil and a Chinese man in Kashgar once beat a mullah who tried to force his Turki Kashgari wife to veil. The Turki women also benefited in that they were not subjected to any legal binding to their Chinese husbands so they could make their Chinese husbands provide them with as much their money as she wanted for her relatives and herself since otherwise the women could just leave, and the property of Chinese men was left to their Turki wives after they died. Turki women considered Turki men to be inferior husbands to Chinese and Hindus. Because they were viewed as "impure", Islamic cemeteries banned the Turki wives of Chinese men from being buried within them, the Turki women got around this problem by giving shrines donations and buying a grave in other towns. Besides Chinese men, other men such as Hindus, Armenians, Jews, Russians, and Badakhshanis intermarried with local Turki women. The local society accepted the Turki women and Chinese men's mixed offspring as their own people despite the marriages being in violation of Islamic law. Turki women also conducted temporary marriages with Chinese men such as Chinese soldiers temporarily stationed around them as soldiers for tours of duty, after which the Chinese men returned to their own cities, with the Chinese men selling their mixed daughters with the Turki women to his comrades, taking their sons with them if they could afford it but leaving them if they couldn't, and selling their temporary Turki wife to a comrade or leaving her behind. An anti-Russian uproar broke out when Russian customs officials, 3 Cossacks and a Russian courier invited local Turki (Uyghur) prostitutes to a party in January 1902 in Kashgar, this caused a massive brawl by the inflamed local Turki Muslim populace against the Russians on the pretense of protecting Muslim women because there was anti-Russian sentiment being built up, even though morality was not strict in Kashgar, the local Turki Muslims violently clashed with the Russians before they were dispersed by guards, the Chinese sought to end to tensions to prevent the Russians from building up a pretext to invade. After the riot, the Russians sent troops to Sarikol in Tashkurghan and demanded that the Sarikol postal services be placed under Russian supervision, the locals of Sarikol believed that the Russians would seize the entire district from the Chinese and send more soldiers even after the Russians tried to negotiate with the Begs of Sarikol and sway them to their side, they failed since the Sarikoli officials and authorities demanded in a petition to the Amban of Yarkand that they be evacuated to Yarkand to avoid being harassed by the Russians and objected to the Russian presence in Sarikol, the Sarikolis did not believe the Russian claim that they would leave them alone and only involved themselves in the mail service. Many of the young Kashgari women were most attractive in appearance, and some of the little girls quite lovely, their plaits of long hair falling from under a jaunty little embroidered cap, their big dark eyes, flashing teeth and piquant olive faces reminding me of Italian or Spanish children. One most beautiful boy stands out in my memory. He was clad in a new shirt and trousers of flowered pink, his crimson velvet cap embroidered with gold, and as he smiled and salaamed to us I thought he looked like a fairy prince. The women wear their hair in two or five plaits much thickened and lengthened by the addition of yak's hair, but the children in several tiny plaits. The peasants are fairly well off, as the soil is rich, the abundant water-supply free, and the taxation comparatively light. It was always interesting to meet them taking their live stock into market. Flocks of sheep with tiny lambs, black and white, pattered along the dusty road; here a goat followed its master like a dog, trotting behind the diminutive ass which the farmer bestrode; or boys, clad in the whity-brown native cloth, shouted incessantly at donkeys almost invisible under enormous loads of forage, or carried fowls and ducks in bunches head downwards, a sight that always made me long to come to the rescue of the luckless birds. It was pleasant to see the women riding alone on horseback, managing their mounts to perfection. They formed a sharp contrast to their Persian sisters, who either sit behind their husbands or have their steeds led by the bridle; and instead of keeping silence in public, as is the rule for the shrouded women of Iran, these farmers' wives chaffered and haggled with the men in the bazar outside the city, transacting business with their veils thrown back. Certainly the mullas do their best to keep the fair sex in their place, and are in the habit of beating those who show their faces in the Great Bazar. But I was told that poetic justice had lately been meted out to one of these upholders of the law of Islam, for by mistake he chastised a Kashgari woman married to a Chinaman, whereupon the irate husband set upon him with a big stick and castigated him soundly. That a Muslim should take in marriage one of alien faith is not objected to; it is rather deemed a meritorious act thus to bring an unbeliever to the true religion. The Muslim woman, on the other hand, must not be given in marriage to a non-Muslim; such a union is regarded as the most heinous of sins. In this matter, however, compromises are sometimes made with heaven: the marriage of a Turki princess with the emperor Ch'ien-lung has already been referred to; and, when the present writer passed through Minjol (a day's journey west of Kashgar) in 1902, a Chinese with a Turki wife (? concubine) was presented to him. FIRST EAST TURKESTAN REPUBLIC Kashgar was the scene of continual battles from 1933 to 1934. Ma Shaowu, a Chinese Muslim, was the Tao-yin of Kashgar, and he fought against Uyghur rebels. He was joined by another Chinese Muslim general, Ma Zhancang. BATTLE OF KASHGAR (1933) Uighur and Kirghiz forces, led by the Bughra brothers and Tawfiq Bay, attempted to take the New City of Kashgar from Chinese Muslim troops under General Ma Zhancang. They were defeated. Tawfiq Bey, a Syrian Arab traveler, who held the title Sayyid (descendent of prophet Muhammed) and arrived at Kashgar on August 26, 1933, was shot in the stomach by the Chinese Muslim troops in September. Previously Ma Zhancang arranged to have the Uighur leader Timur Beg killed and beheaded on August 9, 1933, displaying his head outside of Id Kah Mosque. Han chinese troops commanded by Brigadier Yang were absorbed into Ma Zhancang's army. A number of Han chinese officers were spotted wearing the green uniforms of Ma Zhancang's unit of the 36th division, presumably they had converted to Islam. BATTLE OF KASHGAR (1934) The 36th division General Ma Fuyuan led a Chinese Muslim army to storm Kashgar on February 6, 1934, attacking the Uighur and Kirghiz rebels of the First East Turkestan Republic. He freed another 36th division general, Ma Zhancang, who was trapped with his Chinese Muslim and Han Chinese troops in Kashgar New City by the Uighurs and Kirghiz since May 22, 1933. In January, 1934, Ma Zhancang's Chinese Muslim troops repulsed six Uighur attacks, launched by Khoja Niyaz, who arrived at the city on January 13, 1934, inflicting massive casualties on the Uighur forces. From 2,000 to 8,000 Uighur civilians in Kashgar Old City were massacred by Tungans in February, 1934, in revenge for the Kizil massacre, after retreating of Uighur forces from the city to Yengi Hisar. The Chinese Muslim and 36th division Chief General Ma Zhongying, who arrived at Kashgar on April 7, 1934, gave a speech at Id Kah Mosque in April, reminding the Uighurs to be loyal to the Republic of China government at Nanjing. Several British citizens at the British consulate were killed or wounded by the 36th division on March 16, 1934. PEOPLE´S REPUBLIC OF CHINA Kashgar was incorporated into the People's Republic of China in 1949. During the Cultural Revolution, one of the largest statues of Mao in China was built in Kashgar, near People's Square. In 1986, the Chinese government designated Kashgar a "city of historical and cultural significance". Kashgar and surrounding regions have been the site of Uyghur unrest since the 1990s. In 2008, two Uyghur men carried out a vehicular, IED and knife attack against police officers. In 2009, development of Kashgar's old town accelerated after the revelations of the deadly role of faulty architecture during the 2008 Sichuan earthquake. Many of the old houses in the old town were built without regulation, and as a result, officials found them to be overcrowded and non-compliant with fire and earthquake codes. When the plan started, 42% of the city's residents lived in the old town. With compensation, residents of faulty buildings are being counseled to move to newer, safer buildings that will replace the historic structures in the $448 million plan, including high-rise apartments, plazas, and reproductions of ancient Islamic architecture. The European Parliament issued a resolution in 2011 calling for "culture-sensitive methods of renovation." The International Scientific Committee on Earthen Architectural Heritage (ISCEAH) has expressed concern over the demolition and reconstruction of historic buildings. ISCEAH has, additionally, urged the implementation of techniques utilized elsewhere in the world to address earthquake vulnerability. Following the July 2009 Urumqi riots, the government focused on local economic development in an attempt to ameliorate ethnic tensions in the greater Xinjiang region. Kashgar was made into a Special Economic Zone in 2010, the first such zone in China's far west. In 2011, a spate of violence over two days killed dozens of people. By May 2012 two-thirds of the old city had been demolished, fulfilling "political as well as economic goals." In July 2014 the Imam of the Id Kah Mosque, Juma Tayir, was assassinated in Kashgar. CLIMATE Kashgar features a desert climate (Köppen BWk) with hot summers and cold winters, with large temperature differences between those two seasons: The monthly 24-hour average temperature ranges from −5.3 °C in January to 25.6 °C in July, while the annual mean is 11.84 °C. Spring is long and arrives quickly, while fall is somewhat brief in comparison. Kashgar is one of the driest cities on the planet, averaging only 64 millimetres of precipitation per year. The city’s wettest month, July, only sees on average 9.1 millimetres of rain. Because of the extremely arid conditions, snowfall is rare, despite the cold winters. Records have been as low as −24.4 °C in January and up to 40.1 °C in July. The frost-free period averages 215 days. With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 50% in March to 70% in September, the city receives 2,726 hours of bright sunshine annually. DEMOGRAPHICS Kashgar is predominately peopled by Muslim Uyghurs. Compared to Ürümqi, Xinjiang's capital and largest city, Kashgar is less industrial and has significantly fewer Han Chinese residents. ECONOMICS AND SOCIETY The city has a very important Sunday market. Thousands of farmers from the surrounding fertile lands come into the city to sell a wide variety of fruit and vegetables. Kashgar’s livestock market is also very lively. Silk and carpets made in Hotan are sold at bazaars, as well as local crafts, such as copper teapots and wooden jewellery boxes. In order to boost the economy in Kashgar region, the government classified the area as the sixth Special Economic Zone of China in May 2010. Mahmud al-Kashgari (Turkish: Kâşgarlı Mahmud) (Mahmut from Kashgar) wrote the first Turkic–Arabic Exemplary Dictionary called Divan-ı Lugat-it Türk[citation needed] The movie The Kite Runner was filmed in Kashgar. Kashgar and the surrounding countryside stood in for Kabul and Afghanistan, since filming in Afghanistan was not possible due to safety and security reasons. SIGHTS Kashgar's Old City has been called "the best-preserved example of a traditional Islamic city to be found anywhere in Central Asia". It is estimated to attract more than one million tourists annually. - Id Kah Mosque, the largest mosque in China, is located in the heart of the city. - People's Park, the main public park in central Kashgar. - An 18 m high statue of Mao Zedong in Kashgar is one of the few large-scale statues of Mao remaining in China. - The tomb of Afaq Khoja in Kashgar is considered the holiest Muslim site in Xinjiang. Built in the 17th century, the tiled mausoleum 5 km northeast of the city centre also contains the tombs of five generations of his family. Abakh was a powerful ruler, controlling Khotan, Yarkand, Korla, Kucha and Aksu as well as Kashgar. Among some Uyghur Muslims, he was considered a great Saint (Aulia). - Sunday Market in Kashgar is renowned as the biggest market in central Asia; a pivotal trading point along the Silk Road where goods have been traded for more than 2,000 years. The market is open every day but Sunday is the largest. TRANSPORTATION AIR Kashgar Airport serves mainly domestic flights, the majority of them from Urumqi. The only scheduled international flights are passenger and cargo services with Pakistan's capital Islamabad. RAIL Kashgar has the westernmost railway station in China. It is connected to the rest of China's rail network via the Southern Xinjiang Railway, which was built in December 1999. Kashgar–Hotan Railway opened for passenger traffic in June 2011, and connected Kashgar with cities in the southern Tarim Basin including Shache (Yarkand), Yecheng (Kargilik) and Hotan. Travel time to Urumqi from Kashgar is approximately 25 hours, while travel time to Hotan is approximately ten hours. The investigation work of a further extension of the railway line to Pakistan has begun. In November 2009, Pakistan and China agreed to set up a joint venture to do a feasibility study of the proposed rail link via the Khunjerab Pass. Proposals for a rail connection to Osh in Kyrgyzstan have also been discussed at various levels since at least 1996. In 2012, a standard gauge railway from Kashgar via Tajikistan and Afghanistan to Iran and beyond has been proposed. ROAD The Karakorum highway (KKH) links Islamabad, Pakistan with Kashgar over the Khunjerab Pass. The China–Pakistan Economic Corridor is a multibillion-dollar project was that will upgrade transport links between China and Pakistan, including the upgrades to the Karakorum highway. Bus routes exist for passenger travel south into Pakistan. Kyrgyzstan is also accessible from Kashgar, via the Torugart Pass and Irkeshtam Pass; as of summer 2007, daily bus service connects Kashgar with Bishkek’s Western Bus Terminal. Kashgar is also located on China National Highways G314 (which runs to Khunjerab Pass on the Sino−Pakistani border, and, in the opposite direction, towards Ürümqi), and G315, which runs to Xining, Qinghai from Kashgar. WIKIPEDIA